Hiccups(hichki). They can be annoying or embarrassing, but we typically don’t think of them as concerning. They’re usually short-lived, although in rare cases, they can persist. When they last more than a of couple days, or if other symptoms occur at their onset, they can be a sign of a more serious medical condition.

What causes hiccups (hichki)?

Hiccups seem to come from the chest–a quick influx of air that hits your vocal cords and causes a little sound. The spasm that causes a hiccup is really coming from your diaphragm or the nerves that control it. Some common causes include:

• Eating too much or too fast
• Feeling excited, nervous or scared
• Drinking carbonated beverages or too much alcohol (sometimes in excess)
• Stress
• A sudden change in temperature
• Swallowing air while chewing gum or sucking on candy
• Irritation of the esophagus

Esophageal reflux is a common cause of hiccups. Prolonged hiccups, though, could be caused by direct post-surgical irritation of the phrenic or vagus nerves. Irritation can also be caused by cancers of the chest or neck. Rarely, hiccups can be associated with disorders of the brain–including tumors and strokes, among others—or cardiovascular disease. Some medications can trigger long-term hiccups, too.

Finally, hiccups can also persist without an apparent cause.

What really gets rid of hiccups?

Before we worry too much about serious conditions, let’s consider some of the many recommendations to get rid of your hiccups. One of the most common is temporarily holding your breath to disrupt your breathing pattern. It can be helpful, and it doesn’t carry much risk to try.

As mentioned, the vagus and phrenic nerves affect your diaphragm. They’re part of your autonomic nervous system, which controls your heart rate and breathing.

Maneuvers that affect the nerve reflex may knock out your hiccups. The Valsalva maneuver is performed by attempting to exhale while closing your mouth and pinching your nose shut at the same time. You’ll bear down a bit as well, trying to (unsuccessfully) expel air, as if blowing up a balloon.

This motion stimulates the vagus nerve, called a vagal nerve response, and it can interrupt the hiccups. I like to think of it as rebooting your nervous system; sort of a reset for the irritated nerves.

Ingesting ice or applying mild pressure to your closed eye might also reboot this nervous system response.

You also may get rid of hiccups with a spoonful of sugar to stimulate the back of your throat (which also might cause a vagal nerve response). Eating peanut butter from a spoon might relax the back of your throat and could help. Interestingly, some patients have had success getting rid of hiccups by eating a lemon wedge.

The one common recommendation to be cautioned against is the tradition of scaring someone to rid them of hiccups. While the gasp of fright may induce a vagal nerve response that interrupts the spasm, it also risks dangerous side effects: If you scare someone, they could lose their balance and fall, and being startled may also negatively impact an underlying heart condition.

Introduction to Scripting Languages

All scripting languages square measure programming languages. The scripting language is essentially a language wherever directions square measure written for a run time surroundings. {they do|they square measure doing} not need the compilation step and are rather understood. It brings new functions to applications and glue advanced system along. A scripting language may be a artificial language designed for desegregation and communication with different programming languages.

There square measure several scripting languages a number of them square measure mentioned below:

bash: it’s a scripting language to figure within the Linux interface. it’s tons easier to use bash to form scripts than different programming languages. It describes the tools to use and code within the command and build helpful reusable scripts and conserve documentation for others to figure with.
Node js: it’s a framework to write down network applications mistreatment JavaScript. company users of Node.js embrace IBM, LinkedIn, Microsoft, Netflix, PayPal, Yahoo for period net applications.
Ruby: There square measure tons of reasons to be told Ruby artificial language. Ruby’s flexibility has allowed developers to form innovative software system. it’s a scripting language that is nice for net development.
Python: it’s simple, free and open supply. It supports procedure-oriented programming and object-oriented programming. Python is associate degree understood language with dynamic linguistics and big lines of code square measure scripted and is presently the foremost hyped language among developers.
Perl: A scripting language with innovative options to form it totally different and in style. Found on all windows and Linux servers. It helps in text manipulation tasks. High traffic websites that use Perl extensively embrace priceline.com, IMDB.
Advantages of scripting languages:

Easy learning: The user will learn to code in scripting languages quickly, not abundant information of net technology is needed.
Fast editing: it’s extremely economical with the restricted range of information structures and variables to use.
Interactivity: It helps in adding visualisation interfaces and mixtures in websites. fashionable websites demand the utilization of scripting languages. to form increased websites, fascinated visual description which has background and foreground colours and then on.
Functionality: There square measure {different|totally totally different|completely different} libraries that square measure a part of different scripting languages. they assist in making new applications in net browsers and square measure totally different from traditional programming languages.
Application of Scripting Languages: Scripting languages square measure employed in several areas:

Scripting languages square measure employed in net applications. it’s employed in server facet in addition as consumer facet. Server facet scripting languages are: JavaScript, PHP, Perl etc. and consumer facet scripting languages are: JavaScript, AJAX, jQuery etc.
Scripting languages square measure employed in system administration. For example: Shell, Perl, Python scripts etc.
It is employed in Games application and multimedia system.
It is accustomed produce plugins and extensions for existing applications

Pather panchali is iconic novel of Bibutibhushan Banerjee. The story originally written in Bengali. It was first published as a set of preodically in 1928 which was later put together as a book in 1929. The story is basically a bildungsroman of the child protagonist Apu whose narration is somewhat related to the author’s own childhood. “Pather” means the path or journey while “Panchali” means a folk poem/song,which can be put loosely as “Song of the Road”. 

The plot:

The plot is set in the village of Nischindipur where the family of Apu lives in a ancestral home of their Grandmother Indir Thakuran who happens to be the aunt of Apu’s father Harihor Rai who is the priest but not a man of pratical affairs. Another important person in this story is Indir Thakurun who has lost her whole family and is forced to live alone. So she accepts the proposal of letting in Harihor and their family members who were far off relatives to her. While Sarbhojaya is overly offensive on the old lady with whom they are forced to share their meager rations (although they are living in the old lady’s home) Durga,her daughter and Apu’s elder sister is sympathetic and has a filial affinity towards the old lady. Whenever the old lady leaves the house unable to bear the indifferent attitude meted out on her by Sarbhojaya,it is Durga who drags her grandma back to the home,with her innocent and gleeful talk.One day after an altercation between the two, Indir Thakrun refuses to come back forever and despite repeated calls by Durga she yields no ground. Durga is the quintessential free-spirited girl who refuses to be never bogged down by the difficulties and is presented as a cheerful and happy-go-lucky kind of girl. She has her own shortcomings;especially her propensity to steal things. She doesn’t mind taking away the things which she likes very much such as mangoes from trees of other family people of the village;the bead necklace from her neighbours etc. But she has a good and kind heart. It is just that poverty and failure to fulfill her desires forces her to steal them and behave like a kleptomaniac. Apu is more of an innocent kid who has followed in his father’s footsteps as it can be seen that he is more interested in the scholarly books and articles that are brought home by his father and is more happy to be left alone writing poems and plays of his own, unlike his sister who is an bubbling with hyperactivity and easily approaches any person with whom she wishes to interact. He is more of a shy kid who driven by her sister’s actions. Together they share the simplest of joys which any young brother and sister can have,like eating secretly the stolen mangoes from neighbour’s backyard,running after a candyman who passes through the village,watching a kaleidoscope shown by a vendor and being marvelled by its exquisiteness,walking miles far away from their home just to have a glimpse of the train and so on. As Harihor fails to make any considerable income from the village,he decides to try his luck elsewhere. He promises Sarbhojaya to come back soon with lots of money and gifts for kids. Although he goes here and there,his search goes in vain for the major part. So occasionally he sends a small token amount home which is not at all sufficient to run the family chores. They fall into greater poverty in this period. Adding to their woes Durga falls ill and cyclone hits them at the same time.Due to lack of medical facilities in the nearby village and monetary problems she fails to fully recover from the fever and on a stormy night the dilapidated house collapses partially and also takes away the life of Durga.

Finally Harihor gets a good opportunity as a family priest of a rich family. Brimmed with joy and unaware of the recent happenings in his house he comes back to inform them of the new job and and brings with him new gifts for the family.

Filled with anger and sorrow,when Sarbhojaya breaks down in front of him,he is equally overcome with grief and decides to leave the house and take the whole family with him to the new home where they can lead a better life and leave their bitter memories behind.

The story is a simple expression of human interactions and emotions that has been presented beautifully and poignantly.Even a movie was made in the name “Song of the Little Road” post independence by legendary director Satyajit Ray which was his directorial debut. It was hailed as a master-piece of its own.

Introduction–

Land policy in India has been an important topic of government policy discussion. Since the ancient era, various changes took place in land policy. It was only after independence, the major issues of land has been somewhat sorted out.

In the regime of Akbar, his land revenue officer Todar Mal gave the shape to land policy by introducing various features like land measurement, fixed land revenue and classification of lands. It was the possible beginning of systematic efforts in this field. Under the pre-British era, land revenue was collected by state and it was the sole owner of land who confirmed their rights to land produce. During British rule, existence of non-cultivating intermediaries made the condition even worse by extracting high revenues and sustaining the political hold on the country. At the time of independence, Indian agrarian system was characterised by parasitic intermediaries, high rent, different land revenues, small farmers holding large lands etc.

After Independence-

Immediately after the independence, the newly formed government appointed a Committee under J. C. Kumarappa. His Committee recommended comprehensive reforms in agrarian system. However, mostly of its recommendations were rejected.
Since then, India’s land policy has undergo many changes like abolition of intermediaries, tenancy reforms, redistribution of lands using land ceilings, bringing uncultivated land into cultivation while maintaining the land revenue administration simultaneously.

Moreover, the Constitution of India also provided Article 39 which says that the  ownership and control of material resources of the country should be distributed as best to serve the common good and no concentration of wealth in hands of few that may result detrimental. The Constitution also made land a state subject. However, the central government played a significant advisory role and also provide finances to states.

The focus and emphasis on land policy has changed from last 50 years but some of the issues remain persistent. India’s economy is significantly based on agriculture. Hence, the government should make some policies to improve agrarian structure.

What is Domestic Violence?

Domestic violence is violence or other abuse in a domestic setting, such as in marriage or cohabitation. Domestic violence is often used as a synonym for intimate partner violence, which is committed by one of the people in an intimate relationship against the other person, and can take place in heterosexual or same-sex relationships, or between former spouses or partners. In its broadest sense, domestic violence also involves violence against children, teenagers, parents, or the elderly. It takes multiple forms, including physical, verbal, emotional, economic, religious, reproductive, and sexual abuse, which can range from subtle, coercive forms to marital rape and to violent physical abuse such as choking, beating, female genital mutilation, and acid throwing that results in disfigurement or death. Domestic murders include stoning, bride burning, honour killing, and dowry death.

A 2014 study reports that although the reported sexual violence rate in India is among the lowest in the world, the large population of India means that the violence affects 27.5 million women over their lifetimes. However, an opinion survey among experts was carried out ranked India as the most dangerous country in the world for women.

Globally, the victims of domestic violence are overwhelmingly women, and women tend to experience more severe forms of violence. They are also likelier than men to use intimate partner violence in self-defence. In some countries, domestic violence may be seen as justified or legally permitted, particularly in cases of actual or suspected infidelity on the part of the woman

Domestic violence often occurs when the abuser believes that abuse is an entitlement, acceptable, justified, or unlikely to be reported. It may produce an intergenerational cycle of violence in children and other family members, who may feel that such violence is acceptable or condoned.

Types of Domestic Violence:-

All domestic violence are not equivalent. Differences in frequency, severity, purpose, and outcome are all significant. Domestic violence can take many forms, including physical aggression or assault (hitting, kicking, biting, shoving, restraining, slapping, throwing objects, beating up, etc.), or threats thereof; sexual abuse; controlling or domineering; intimidation; stalking; passive/covert abuse and economic deprivation. It can also mean endangerment, criminal coercion, kidnapping, unlawful imprisonment, trespassing, and harassment.

• Physical Abuse:

It is a violence which is intended to cause fear, pain, injury, other physical suffering or bodily harm. Physical violence can be the culmination of other abusive behaviour, such as threats, intimidation, and restriction of victim self-determination through isolation, manipulation and other limitations of personal freedom. Denying medical care, sleep deprivation, and forced drug or alcohol use, are also forms of physical abuse.

Strangulation in the context of domestic violence has received significant attention. It is now recognized as one of the most lethal forms of domestic violence; yet, because of the lack of external injuries, and the lack of social awareness and medical training in regard to it, strangulation has often been a hidden problem.

During pregnancy, a woman is at higher risk to be abused or long-standing abuse may change in severity, causing negative health effects to the mother and foetus.  Pregnancy can also lead to a hiatus of domestic violence when the abuser does not want to harm the unborn child.

Acid attacks, are an extreme form of violence in which acid is thrown at the victims, usually their faces, resulting in extensive damage including long-term blindness and permanent scarring.

Bride burning or dowry killing is a form of domestic violence in which a newly married woman is killed at home by her husband or husband’s family due to their dissatisfaction over the dowry provided by her family. The act is often a result of demands for more or prolonged dowry after the marriage.

• Sexual Abuse:-

Sexual abuse, is defined by World Health Organization as any sexual act, attempt to obtain a sexual act, unwanted sexual comments or advances, or acts to traffic, or otherwise directed, against a person’s sexuality using coercion. It also includes obligatory inspections for virginity and female genital mutilation.

In many cultures, victims of rape are considered to have brought dishonor or disgrace to their families and face severe familial violence, including honor killings.This is especially the case if the victim becomes pregnant.

Incest, or sexual contact between a related adult and a child, is one form of familial sexual violence.^[  In some cultures, there are ritualized forms of child sexual abuse taking place with the knowledge and consent of the family, where the child is induced to engage in sexual acts with adults, possibly in exchange for money or goods.

Reproductive coercion are threats or acts of violence against a partner’s reproductive rights, health and decision-making; and includes a collection of behaviors intended to pressure or coerce a partner into becoming pregnant or ending a pregnancy.

Marital rape is non-consensual penetration perpetrated against a spouse. It is under-reported, under-prosecuted, and legal in many countries, due in part to the belief that through marriage, a woman gives irrevocable consent for her husband to have sex with her when he wishes.

• Emotional Abuse:-

Emotional abuse is a pattern of behavior that threatens, intimidates, dehumanizes or systematically undermines self-worth. According to the Istanbul Convention, psychological violence is “the intentional conduct of seriously impairing a person’s psychological integrity through coercion or threats”.

Emotional abuse includes minimising, threats, isolation, public humiliation, unrelenting criticism, constant personal devaluation, coercive control, repeated stonewalling and gaslighting. Stalking is a common form of psychological intimidation, and is most often perpetrated by former or current intimate partners. Victims tend to feel their partner has nearly total control over them, greatly affecting the power dynamic in a relationship, empowering the perpetrator, and disempowering the victim.