The corona virus infection in India has hit the mark of 21.5 lakh as new cases are being added daily. In a matter of one day, 64000 new cases have been added, making India the world’s third worst infected country. This also includes over 43000 deaths and more than 14.8 lakh patients who have recovered. India added has added over 5 lakh cases in the last 10 days. The rate of recoveries is also on the rise. Recovered cases are now more than double that of active cases. This, however, does not necessarily count as a sign of relief or an indication that the country has hit its peak.

The increase in the cases can also be due to the testing drive which the governments of different states have started in order to ensure that the community spread of the virus is avoided. Another reason for the rapid spread of this virus can be large population of the country and the unhygienic places that most people live in. many argue that the lock down was never the correct solution for fighting the virus as it only gave more time to make people aware about the adversity that the virus can cause. After the government had eased the restrictions, people were quick to go out to live a normal life, the one they had before the lock down.

The rise in the cases is also because of the carelessness of the people. The government has made it mandatory to wear masks whenever going out, but the neglecting nature of the people is such that until and unless a police officer is in their site they will not wear a mask. As the government is easing down the restrictions, the people are more than eager to go out and lead a normal life and our meeting their friends, going to public places, or restaurants, etc. the conflict between the centre and state governments is making it difficult to ensure the availability of the resources necessary for the treatment of the patients.

Thus, we as individuals need to understand that even though every restriction is slowly coming down, it does not mean that we need to go all haywire and try to live the same way as we did earlier because it is being claimed that we now need to learn to live with the virus by wearing masks, practicing social distancing, and maintaining personal hygiene.

Indus Valley civilisation or the harappan civilization is the earliest known urban culture in the Indian subcontinent. Located in the northeastern part of Afghanistan, that stretches to Pakistan and northwestern part of India, the Indus Valley Civilization in its early stage existed as a Bronze Age civilization from 3300 to 1300 BCE. Its mature period covered 2600 to 1900 BCE. The civilization thrived in the Indus River, which is one of the chief rivers in Asia. Another water source that gave life to Indus Valley was the Ghaggar-Hakra River that passes through the northwest point of India and eastern section of Pakistan. These two rivers served as major life support for the population, providing the inhabitants with abundant water supply as well as channel for mobility in and around the valley.

Excavations have revealed that the Harappan civilization town planning was arguably the most scientifically advanced in terms of town planning, albeit by the use of very basic means. The main streets of Indus valley ran from North to South, intersecting each other at right angles. Varying from 9 to 34 feet the streets were suitable for wheeled traffic and slightly elevated at one end to allow rain water to drain out in a particular direction. Excavations have revealed that the Harappan civilization town planning was arguably the most scientifically advanced in terms of town planning, albeit by the use of very basic means.

More features of the urban plan of Indus Valley Civilization included a hydraulic engineering technique in which every house or village got water from common wells. In their own version of bathroom, the water used for bathing directly went to covered drainages located on the sides of the streets. Also, residential homes were linked only to inner and narrower streets and interior courtyards. On the other hand, major thoroughfares connected neighborhoods and villages. There were enormous walls that served as protection from floods and military invasions. Wheeled transportation was also present, making it possible for the people to engage in trade with one another and with traders outside their territory. The Indus Valley inhabitants already had their own writing system as shown in the inscriptions that were later uncovered.

At the most, the Indus Valley civilization may have been populated with more than 5 million inhabitants. Over time, the people learned various crafts such as carving and metallurgy. Carnelian and seal carving was very popular as well as the use of metals such as lead, tin, copper and bronze. Apart from these skills, the Indus people were able to develop their own community plan that is akin to the present day urban planning system. Houses were made of bricks and buildings were erected in groups, resembling a modern urban environment characterized by tall buildings standing side by side. Another standout achievement of the Indus Valley people was their own meticulously planned drainage systems as well as an efficient water supply. Evidently, the Indus Valley Civilization, also known as the Harappan Civilization, already possessed the characteristics of metropolitan culture as seen in the layout of their communities. One of the striking features of these urban centers was their accessibility to places of hygiene (bath houses) where religious rites also took place as historians suggest.

Juvenile Delinquency is one of the most important problems. It exhibits a specific pattern of behaviour and involves any wrong doing by a child or a young person who is under the age limit as specified by law.

As per the section 2(k) of the Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act 2000, a juvenile is a person who has not completed 18 years of age. ‘Juvenile in conflict with law’ means a juvenile who is alleged to have committed an offence. He/she is also called a juvenile delinquent. A delinquent is an under aged person who is guilty of anti social act and whose misconduct is an attraction of law.

A juvenile delinquent is a person who breaks the law, is a vagrant, and persists in disobeying orders and whose behaviour endangers the moral well being of his own as well as of the others. Delinquency is a type of abnormality which may not be regarded as a criminal behaviour; however juvenile delinquency is injurious for children and is thus prohibited.

There are various opinions expressed regarding this behaviour such as bad company, adolescent instability, mental and emotional conflicts, social suggestibility, motion pictures, poor recreation, vocational dissatisfaction, and physical conditions. However, explanation of delinquency in terms of living in slums, broken homes, films, or moral deprivation etc. have failed to provide a comprehensive regarding this issue.

For the purpose of eradicating juvenile delinquency, the government has established and maintained institutions of observation homes and special homes with all facilities for the temporary reception of any child in case of a conflict with the law. The government has recognised reputed and capable voluntary organizations and provided them assistance to set up and administer as many shelter homes for children or juveniles as may be required.

Communal means pertaining to a community engaged in or involving two or more communities. A community consists of people organised into a social unit. In India, a community is often organised on the basis of caste or religion. It is something that constitutes a common interest, common language, common government which is formed by any number of individuals.

India is a multi linguistic, multi religious, and multi racial country. We can find conflicts between different groups of people based on the caste, religion and race. After India gained its independence, which was on the basis of Hindu and Muslim communities i.e. India and Pakistan, it flamed the communal riots among the Hindus and the Muslims where millions were rendered homeless while many lost their homes but the worst part was that it gave rise to communal tension which has not been put to an end till now.

Communal tensions rise when there is contradiction between two groups on the question of language, community, culture, etc. During the Mughal rule, Aurangzeb inflicted much injustice and misery on the Hindus and in return, many Hindu rulers retaliated in a violent way. Many parties were also started based on the communal interests which led to conflicts. When the communities live as a separate section, there is a chance to develop tensions between them because of their varied modes of life. Hatred and disgust is also another cause for the communal tension which can arise on false thoughts which are based on ignorance.

Some of the social causes also promote communal tensions. Muslims slaughter cow and this injures the feelings of the Hindus whereas many Hindus find it objectionable to form a close relationship with Muslims as they follow another religion. The different customs followed by these communities is also a reason for them to look at each other in a slightly different manner.

For communal harmony, it is necessary to make a concerted effort and both the government and the people have to co-operate if any success is to be achieved in this regard. The mass media should be used in a form of creating a healthy national opinion. Historical events where both the hindus and the muslims worked together for the national interest should be promoted. The political parties which are formed on the basis of communalism should be banned and there should be formation of youth organization which should include people from both the communities.

Casteism in India is one of the social problems that are prevalent in India. It refers to the hatred for one caste by the other or the attempts of the members of one caste to gain advantage for them to the detriment of the interest of the fellowmen of the other castes. It is a result of the growing clash between various castes for higher share in the socio economic privileges and power but the feelings of deprivation are fanned mainly by a few individuals for their own benefits in the name of the caste as a whole.

Kaka Kelelkar says that casteism is an overriding blind and supreme group loyalty that ignores the healthy social standards of justice, fair play, equality and universal brotherhood. Prasad D.N. says that casteism is loyalty to the caste translated into politics. The causes of casteism are the sense of caste prestige, marriage restrictions, illiteracy, communication propaganda, etc. The effects of casteism are the hindrance to the nationality, danger to democracy, moral degradation etc.

The old use of the term caste has changed in the present times. Now the members of the scheduled casts are proud of saying that they belong to a particular case and are even adding their caste names to their personal names. Caste sanctions have also become weak and do not operate with the same force in all sections of Indian society. The political use of caste is increasing day by day in every region of India. The structure and function of caste system have weakened and the association between caste and occupation is now a thing of the past. Many new occupations are being created where people of all castes meet freely and work together.

After India gained independence, the caste system has seen some drastic changes. Untouchability, the most undesirable feature of the caste system, has received a severe setback and is disappearing from the society. The caste panchayats used to wield all the authority and the Brahmins enjoyed a superior position, however in the modern times, village panchayats, trade unions, and the state are the exclusive features and the supremacy of the Brahmins has vanished from the society.  

The Indian constitution gives reservation to the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes in the Legislative Assembly and the House of the People in articles 332 and 330 respectively. They have also been given reservations in education, jobs and at other places so that they are given an equal opportunity as compared to others and also to take care of their financial interests.

Law is the body of principles recognised and applied by the State in the administration of justice. It is a body of rules which guides human conduct in the society and is a means of social control. Every society has its own legal system and is imposed by the authorities. Those who deviate from the law are usually given the punishment of various kinds such as fines, imprisonment, exile, or death. Law means justice, morality, reason, order, and righteousness from the view point of the society. It is term used to define legal order which represents the regime of adjusting relation, and ordering conduct by the systematic application of the force of organized political society.

It is a whole body of legal precepts which exists in a politically organized society. The function of law is to achieve justice, stability, and peaceful change. It is helpful to control natural tendencies and certain human instincts. It ensures co-operation. It acts as social rule and as an instrument of state. It is used as a means to reduce disharmony in the society.

Law is a social function, an expression of human society concerning the external relations of its individual members. The purpose of society and social relations determine the nature, purpose and function of law. In a static society, law can be used as a powerful means of social change. Law introduces a new pattern of social behavior which is more conducive to the prosperity of the society. When there are odious customs, they can be put down by the law which abolishes those customs, and make it an offence to practice them, as seen in the case of Triple Talaq. Thus, law can be used as an instrument to achieve peaceful social change.

Social legislations in India before and after the independence clearly shows the efforts of the state and the society to bring the legal norms in line with the existing social norms as well as to improve the social norms on the basis of new legal norms. 

Encounter killings is a term used to describe alleged extrajudicial killings by the police or the armed forces, supposedly in self defense, when they encounter suspected gangsters or terrorists. In India, the term became popular in the late 20^thcentury because of a very high frequency of encounter killings by police in cities such as Mumbai, Chennai, and Kolkata. The Mumbai police used encounters to attack the city’s underworld, and the practice spread to other large cities. However, there is always a speculation behind the police motivation of these reported incidents, and further complain that the wide acceptance of the practice has led to incidents of police staging fake encounters to cover up the killings of suspects when they are either in custody or are unarmed.

After the encounter of Vikas Dubey and the 4 people accused by the Telengana police in the Hyderabad rape and murder case, questions have been raised over the legality and appropriateness of the police action leading to the debate that ‘whether a democratic country should follow the constitutional norms and adhere to the due process of law or shall it adopt the measure of retributive justice to bring instant and speedy justice to the victims.

On such extra judicial killings, the National Human Rights Commission and the Supreme Court have laid down proper guidelines and procedures that must be followed in order to prevent any abuse of the power by the law enforcement agencies. In its landmark judgment, the Supreme Court had warned the policemen that they would not be excused for committing murder in the name of encounter on the pretext that they were carrying out the orders of their superior officers.

Article 21 of the Indian constitution states that no person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except in accordance with the procedure established by law. This means that before depriving a person of their right to life, the person must be informed about the charges against them and must be given the opportunity to defend themselves. However, fake encounters step aside these legal procedures as it essentially means killing a person without a trial.

The police force has the right to injure or kill the criminal for the sole purpose of self defense but nothing must be done to settle personal feuds or with mala fide motives. NHRC guidelines in 2010 highlight that if the use of force cannot be justified and the death falls outside the jurisdiction of the above mentioned reasons, it is a crime and police officer would be guilty of culpable homicide.

Cold war is a state of tension between two big powers. It is used to describe the period which emerged after the Second World War. When the Second World War ended, both the United States of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republic were clearly the masters of the world. The main cause of this tension was the difference in the opinion of these superpowers as the US was in the favor of Capitalism and the USSR was in the favor of Socialism. The hostility continued for the next 45 years. It is not an actual or direct war but is a diplomatic war fought with potent weapons like formation military alliances, spying, propaganda, and economic and military alliances.

The US was of the ideology that all industries, business and agriculture should be owned by private people or firms. Competition between rival factories or shops or firms will cause the prices to fall and will make them more efficient. The USSR on the other hand believed that everything belongs to the state and should be run by the government on behalf of the people. A classless society can be achieved by overthrowing capitalism by revolution.

Another cause for the cold war was that both the nations wanted domination over the world as both the nations were considered to be super powers. They also wanted control over the entire Germany as it was divided into two parts on the basis of ideology they followed. This war between the superpowers influenced the foreign policies, political institutions, and economic systems in almost every corner of the world.

Each side thought that the other one was trying to rule the world and neither of them would give up and it was feared that another war would erupt. This time it could have been a nuclear war. as both the nations were well equipped in ammunition, and it would destroy the whole planet. The countries began to form alliances to protect themselves. This led to the formation of NATO and Warsaw Pact.

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was established by a treaty in 1949 which established a system of collective defense whereby it member states agree to mutual defense in response to an attack by any external party. Its original members were – United States, United Kingdom, Canada, France, Denmark, Italy, Norway, Portugal, Belgium, Netherlands, and Luxembourg. Later Greece and West Germany also joined.

The Warsaw Pact was the socialist response to NATO and was signed on May 1, 1955 in Warsaw Poland. Military treaty, which bound its signatories to come to the aid of the others, should any one of them be the victim of foreign aggression. Its original members were – Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, East Germany, Poland, Romania, the USSR, and the Czechoslovak Republic.

 The cold war ended in 1990 when the soviet was defeated from Afghanistan and the Soviet Union was divided into different countries. 

Social media is a helpful tool to raise awareness about various social issues that happen all around the world. One such awareness campaign that is going all over the instagram is the Black and White photo challenge, where the person who is challenged has to put a black and white photo of them on the social media platform with the hash tags #blackandwhitephotochallenge and #challenge accepted. More than 53,00,000 people have participated in this challenge and posted their photos. Women, including the celebrities, are posting their pictures as a sign of women empowerment.

The challenge is said have began in Turkey where there was a sudden spike in gender based violence, along with nearly 474 murders of women in a society that has already normalized honor killings and domestic violence; not just at the hands of partners or husbands but also from the male members of the family.

In an article is was said that, ‘what is now a light hearted expression of female solidarity was originally, in Turkey, a campaign inspired by both the soaring rates of violence against women and the brutal murder of a 27 year old student named Pinar Gultekin. Turkish women wake up every day and see a black and white photo of women who has been murdered, either on their instagram feed or their newspapers or television. This challenge was thus started as a way for women to raise their voices and to stand in solidarity with the women we have lost.

The Turkish government has failed its women, so they need to take this matter in their own hands to create awareness. In 2011, the Istanbul convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence was signed by a number of European countries however, the Turkish government is now backing out of this. Thus we need to back the power and use our voices or whatever small or big privilege we have and effectively use the challenge to raise our voices to create awareness about gender based violence.

 Assertiveness is a skill for effective communication and negotiation while respecting the thoughts and feelings of others. Assertive people are clear about their wants, needs, and boundaries to others and there remains no question to where they stand. Being assertive means being able to stand up for what is right, and to say no to something that does not pleases in a confident, calm, and respectful way which is neither too aggressive nor passive. It is an important personal and interpersonal skill as in all our interactions being assertive helps us to express ourselves in a clear, open, and reasonable way, without undermining our own or other’s rights.

An aggressive communication can ruin relationships for us because no one likes to be in the company of a person who constantly judges, argues, disagrees, and does not allow others to share their opinion. While a passive communication may lead to us feeling misunderstood or unheard and we may also feel that no one truly listens to us or value our input. However an assertive communication is way to present our thoughts and beliefs in a clear manner. Assertiveness is seen as a balance between aggressive and passive types of personalities.

Assertive behaviour includes –

• Being open in expressing wishes and encouraging others to do the same
• Listening to the views of others and responding appropriately, whether in agreement with those views or not
• Accepting responsibilities and being able to delegate to others
• Regularly expressing appreciation of others for what they have done or are doing
• Being able to admit to mistakes and apologise
• Maintaining self control
• Behaving as an equal to others

BENEFITS OF BEING ASSERTIVE

• Assertive people feel empowered to do whatever it takes to find the best solutions for their problems that they face.
• They get things done by treating people with fairness and respect and are treated by others in the same way.
• They are self assured and don’t feel threatened or upset when things don’t go as planned or as expected.
• They are able to recognize the value of their opponent’s position and can quickly find common ground with them.
• They are able to express themselves in a better and calm way which makes the communication effective.
• They are confident enough to show that they are brave enough to stand up for what the resonate with as well as are in control of what they say.
• Trust is an important part for any communication to take place and being an assertive person helps to you get their easily. 

 In the year 1997, Indian women celebrated a landmark judgment which was passed by the supreme court of India where they formulated the VISHAKHA GUIDELINES and made it mandatory for the institutions all over the country to take up these guidelines to prevent and redress sexual harassment at workplace. These guidelines laid the foundation of the Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013. Women in India comprise of almost 50% of the population of India and work in almost all the sectors and areas, even in those professions which were believed to be exclusively reserved for men and women never even thought to enter those.

This change was followed by a series of incidents where women were raped and harassed by men, and were subjected to a lot of physical and mental torture at the workplaces. This was a violation of the fundamental rights of the women such as art 14 i.e. right to equality, art 15and 16 which states that there shall be no discrimination on the basis of gender, caste, religion etc. and equality of opportunity respectively. Thus there was a necessity for the women to be treated properly at their workplace. The Vishakha Guidelines came into existence after the horrifying case of Bhanwari Devi, a government employee who was harassed by a group of people at her working hours.

FACTS OF THE CASE

Bhanwari Devi was a social worker in Rajasthan, who was brutally raped by a number of upper class men as she tried to stop a child marriage. She filed a complaint against those men but was not taken seriously by the policemen and it took 52 hours to file the complaint. The Rajasthan High Court acquitted all those men of rape on the context that a woman cannot be raped in front her husband and that the head of the village would never indulge in such acts. They convicted those men for the offence of assault, the degree for punishment of which is quite lesser than that of rape. In her support, many women’s groups and NGOs filed a PIL in the Supreme Court under the collective platform of Vishakha asking the court to give certain directions regarding the sexual harassment against women at the workplace. On 13^th august 1997, the Supreme Court gave the Vishakha Guidelines which included the basic definition of sexual harassment at workplace and guidelines to deal with it.

NEED FOR THESE GUIDELINES

After the Bhanwari Devi incident, many women groups protested as they demanded recognition of their rights as the citizens of India and urging the government to take necessary actions to prevent harassment of women at their workplace. At that time, the legal system of our country did not have proper legislation that would ensure the safety of the women at their workplace or provide just and fair punishment to the offenders who would indulge in the heinous crimes of rape and sexual harassment. Also there was no rule regarding the obligation of the employer to provide support and assistance to his employee who might be a victim of harassment rather they would just throw the employee out of their jobs in order to escape the liability. Thus there was a need for a new set of laws that would punish the wrongdoers and ensure the safety of the women at their workplaces.

FEATURES OF THE VISHAKHA GUIDELINES

1. Definition of sexual harassment– the guidelines issued by the supreme court widens the meaning and scope of sexual harassment and defines it as an unwanted sexual determination which is direct or implied and is intended to cause physical contact or advances, demand or request for sexual favors, sexually colored remarks, or any other unwelcome conduct whether it is physical, verbal, or non verbal.
2. Providing a safer working environment– it is the duty of each employer to provide a safe working environment for each and every employee working in the company, which involves taking measures towards protecting the interest of the women employees and ensuring that none of the employees indulge in any practice of sexual harassment.
3. Duty of the employer– the guidelines lay down that it is the obligation of the employer to file a complaint if the conduct of any of its employee amounts to a criminal offence which is punishable under the Indian Penal Code.
4. Complaint Redressal Committee– it was made mandatory for all the organization to set up a complaint redressal committee in order to ensure that the complaints of the employees are dealt properly and suitable action is taken.

 Mental health has always been an under-rated topic in India. People don’t like the idea of talking about their mental illness let alone the mental illness of others. However, it is one of the most important parts of any individual’s live because if someone suffers from a mental illness, an impact is caused on their day-to-day working. Mental illness is a health condition that affects the emotions, thinking, or behaviour of a person. It is associated with distress or problems related to the functioning in social, work, or a family set-up. Sometimes mental illnesses can run in the family and can pass on from genes to the future generations.

One such mental illness is Cyberchondria. The term was first coined in 2001in an article in the United Kingdom newspaper to describe ‘the excessive use of the internet health sites to fuel health anxiety. Cyberchondria refers to a person’s anxiety regarding their health which is created by the use of internet to search for medical information. It is believed to affect more as the use of internet among people has been increased a lot. Many people with the access to internet turn to it for their self diagnosis as a vast of amount of information is available with only a few clicks. For some the information may be true and relatable but for others it can cause severe anxiety as the information they find online can get them to worry too much.

CAUSES OF CYBERCHONDRIA

It is likely for people with pre-existing anxiety and depression to experience Cyberchondria. There is an enormous amount of information available online however it is not always true or factual. Blogs or online support groups provide information about any disease or any other topic based on other people’s experiences which may not be fit for all. Many websites prey on the fears of the people to deliberately sell them unapproved treatment and earn loads of money. New mothers may also Google about their new babies and find information that can be stressing making them prone to this disease.

These are the factors that convince people that they suffer from some disease based on the common or vague symptoms. Sometimes such symptoms can be of some normal flu but the internet and provide an exaggerated result due to which people get anxious. People who suffer from Cyberchondria are known to be hyper aware of their bodies and the misinformation can increase their anxiety which can make their symptoms worse.

COPING WITH CYBERCHONDRIA

There are some simple steps that people with Cyberchondria may use to cope up with the illness like the first being to restrict the use of internet and avoiding it to search information regarding your health problems or to only look for information from trusted sites that provide data which is scientifically and medically approved. Also it is important to lead a healthy lifestyle which includes proper sleep, regular exercise, good nutrition, and other things for good health; one can also schedule a routinely checkup with their doctor and if they face symptoms that linger on for a few days, then they should go and seek help from a doctor rather than going to internet and performing a self diagnosis as a doctor is a more reliable source than internet.

The pandemic of Covid-19 has greatly affected not only the health of the people but also their lives. There is a daily increase in the cases of patients who are being infected by the virus along with the rise in the recovered patients. There has also been an impact on the economy of the country as businesses have been shut, and people are facing unemployment. The living standard of the people has also seen quite a change as people are now opting for the lifestyle that is far from luxurious because of the financial crunch they are facing. The pandemic has also taught us the importance of self hygiene as well as hygiene around us. It also made us realise the need to spend the time with our families which we were unable to do with regard to our busy schedules. As there was a lockdown, as a preventive measure against the virus, people had the opportunity to try out new things as well as work on their hobbies.

During the lockdown, proper hand washing techniques as well as keeping a sanitizer handy were the policies adopted and preached by the people. Wearing masks while going out and practicing social distancing were also two important measures that each individual opted for and is abiding by it. However, these measures are something that we should be continuing to use even when the complete lockdown is lifted; as the virus is something that is not going away anytime soon and we need to learn to live with the virus instead of living in the fear of it.

The concepts of work from home as well as online classes were the new methods that companies and schools/colleges opted for so that neither the working nor the education stops. These concepts quickly gained popularity among people as well as have been the preferred method for them. Many schools have even resumed the online classes for the session of 2020-2021 as normal wherein the children are taught the lectures online and are given assignments as homework. Many employees are willing to continue this mode of work as they feel that they are more relaxed while working from home and the environment for work is also easy-going.

Many individuals have inculcated cooking skills in them as they are everyday trying to learn new recipes and sharing them on the social media to inspire others. The people have also learned the importance of home cooked food and the fashion of eating fast food is also seeing a decrease. People are also inclined to learning new things and are enrolling themselves in various online courses, workshops, seminars etc.

Many people are and will be facing a new type of issue i.e. Adjustment Issue. Most of us might be apprehensive to go out due to the fear of virus or many would and are finding it difficult to wear masks or adapting to the new lifestyle. However, they must understand that these measures are for our own benefit and for our protection from the virus. Thus, people must wear masks whenever they go out and must also practice social distancing. They should also maintain personal hygiene by constantly washing hands for 20 seconds and avoid touching any surface when they are out.