In India, the political system has not been static. It has been changing with times but to a large extent basic system has remained unchanged. In the ancient past both under the Hindu and the Muslim rulers, there used to be absolute monarchy. The ruler used to be above law of the land. There used to be no written laws. The words of the Raja or Badshah used to be final and no one dared to challenge the commands of the King. He, of course, used to have his Ministers who provided him feedback in order to enable him to take a decision, but it was not obligatory for of the king to accept their advice.

The last of the Mughals surrendered before the de facto authority of the East India Company. The Company governed a large part of India but again basically the system remained the same. It had no feedback from the people. Input system was very weak and character of administration remained autocratic. There was administrative machinery, but more than often that was used as instrument of exploitation of the people, rather than that of their welfare. Since the feedback to the political system established by East India Company in India was poor, therefore, output in the form of final laws was not to the satisfaction of the people. The result was that the structure could not resist the demands of the people and ultimately bowed down when there was outburst in 1857. The administration of India went from the Company to the Crown.

The system had slight change under the Crown. It was felt that that would be made responsive to the people though slowly and gradually but practically that did not happen. From unwritten law, a step forward towards written law was taken when Acts were passed in 1861, 1909, 1919, 1935 and then in 1947. Basic structure and system, however, remained unchanged. Throughout the period in India the system was headed by a Governor- General, who was not responsible to the people of India in any way. Though Councils set up under the Acts were enlarged and it was hoped that these would provide sufficient feedback to law makers yet the whole process was very slow. The right to franchise was given to very few persons who really did not represent the masses. The system came under strains and stresses by Indian political leaders who suggested the people of India to demonstrate, go on strike, boycott British goods, customs and the people as well as their way of life. World public opinion put more strains on the system.

India, i.e. Bharat, as stated in her constitution is a ‘Union of States’ and follows a democratic parliamentary system of governance. Naturally, the features of Indian political system are varied. The well developed and fully evolved form of democracy that we witness today in India has taken a long span of time to be matured. It has seen both ups and downs, but has managed to survive successfully. We know that there are many factors which worked for the success of India’s democracy. But here we put light on merely the most cardinal factors which directly helped India to preserve their democratic government in the last few decades.

The of Indian political system are –

1.     Panchayat System: One of the salient features of Indian political system, the Panchayat system of ancient India helps the people of India to cope with the culture of democracy. The Panchayat is today the lowest and in a sense the most basic- unit of self government in India. Today, there exists a three-tier Panchayat System in India, gram Panchayat at the village level, Panchayat samiti at the block level and zila parishad at the district level.

2.     Federalism: The second feature of Indian political system is federalism. In India, the centre largely depends on the states for implementing many of public policies which encourages decentralization process. The term ‘federation’ has nowhere been used in the Constitution. Instead, Article 1 of the Constitution describes India as a ‘Union of States’. The Constitution establishes a dual polity consisting the Union at the Centre and the states at the periphery. Each is endowed with sovereign powers to be exercised in the field assigned to them respectively by the Constitution.

3.     Electoral Practice: India ensured the voting right of people of India by the Constitution of the India which is supreme law of the country. The framers of the Constitution of India described about election of India in the Part XV, Articles 324 to 329 of the Constitution. Moreover, the Indian government or leaders always arrange the elections after the said tenure. In this approach people always get chance to exercise their power or to choose their favorite candidate.  

4.     Multi-Party System: India is known for its multi party system. It is a crucial feature of Indian political system. There are many parties in India ranging from 6 National Political parties and more than 48 state parties and many registered regional parties. The multiparty system in India make unique in the world.  In Indian political system one can find the rightist, centrist, leftist, regional, even local political parties to deal with the political issues.

5.     Written Constitution: The Constitution is not only a written document but also the lengthiest Constitution of the world. Originally, it contained a Preamble, 395 Articles (divided into 22 Parts) and 8 Schedules. At present (2013), it consists of a Preamble, about 465 Articles (divided into 25 Parts) and 12 Schedules. It specifies the structure, organisation, powers and functions of both the Central and state governments and prescribes the limits within which they must operate.

The corona virus infection in India has hit the mark of 21.5 lakh as new cases are being added daily. In a matter of one day, 64000 new cases have been added, making India the world’s third worst infected country. This also includes over 43000 deaths and more than 14.8 lakh patients who have recovered. India added has added over 5 lakh cases in the last 10 days. The rate of recoveries is also on the rise. Recovered cases are now more than double that of active cases. This, however, does not necessarily count as a sign of relief or an indication that the country has hit its peak.

The increase in the cases can also be due to the testing drive which the governments of different states have started in order to ensure that the community spread of the virus is avoided. Another reason for the rapid spread of this virus can be large population of the country and the unhygienic places that most people live in. many argue that the lock down was never the correct solution for fighting the virus as it only gave more time to make people aware about the adversity that the virus can cause. After the government had eased the restrictions, people were quick to go out to live a normal life, the one they had before the lock down.

The rise in the cases is also because of the carelessness of the people. The government has made it mandatory to wear masks whenever going out, but the neglecting nature of the people is such that until and unless a police officer is in their site they will not wear a mask. As the government is easing down the restrictions, the people are more than eager to go out and lead a normal life and our meeting their friends, going to public places, or restaurants, etc. the conflict between the centre and state governments is making it difficult to ensure the availability of the resources necessary for the treatment of the patients.

Thus, we as individuals need to understand that even though every restriction is slowly coming down, it does not mean that we need to go all haywire and try to live the same way as we did earlier because it is being claimed that we now need to learn to live with the virus by wearing masks, practicing social distancing, and maintaining personal hygiene.

Indus Valley civilisation or the harappan civilization is the earliest known urban culture in the Indian subcontinent. Located in the northeastern part of Afghanistan, that stretches to Pakistan and northwestern part of India, the Indus Valley Civilization in its early stage existed as a Bronze Age civilization from 3300 to 1300 BCE. Its mature period covered 2600 to 1900 BCE. The civilization thrived in the Indus River, which is one of the chief rivers in Asia. Another water source that gave life to Indus Valley was the Ghaggar-Hakra River that passes through the northwest point of India and eastern section of Pakistan. These two rivers served as major life support for the population, providing the inhabitants with abundant water supply as well as channel for mobility in and around the valley.

Excavations have revealed that the Harappan civilization town planning was arguably the most scientifically advanced in terms of town planning, albeit by the use of very basic means. The main streets of Indus valley ran from North to South, intersecting each other at right angles. Varying from 9 to 34 feet the streets were suitable for wheeled traffic and slightly elevated at one end to allow rain water to drain out in a particular direction. Excavations have revealed that the Harappan civilization town planning was arguably the most scientifically advanced in terms of town planning, albeit by the use of very basic means.

More features of the urban plan of Indus Valley Civilization included a hydraulic engineering technique in which every house or village got water from common wells. In their own version of bathroom, the water used for bathing directly went to covered drainages located on the sides of the streets. Also, residential homes were linked only to inner and narrower streets and interior courtyards. On the other hand, major thoroughfares connected neighborhoods and villages. There were enormous walls that served as protection from floods and military invasions. Wheeled transportation was also present, making it possible for the people to engage in trade with one another and with traders outside their territory. The Indus Valley inhabitants already had their own writing system as shown in the inscriptions that were later uncovered.

At the most, the Indus Valley civilization may have been populated with more than 5 million inhabitants. Over time, the people learned various crafts such as carving and metallurgy. Carnelian and seal carving was very popular as well as the use of metals such as lead, tin, copper and bronze. Apart from these skills, the Indus people were able to develop their own community plan that is akin to the present day urban planning system. Houses were made of bricks and buildings were erected in groups, resembling a modern urban environment characterized by tall buildings standing side by side. Another standout achievement of the Indus Valley people was their own meticulously planned drainage systems as well as an efficient water supply. Evidently, the Indus Valley Civilization, also known as the Harappan Civilization, already possessed the characteristics of metropolitan culture as seen in the layout of their communities. One of the striking features of these urban centers was their accessibility to places of hygiene (bath houses) where religious rites also took place as historians suggest.

Juvenile Delinquency is one of the most important problems. It exhibits a specific pattern of behaviour and involves any wrong doing by a child or a young person who is under the age limit as specified by law.

As per the section 2(k) of the Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act 2000, a juvenile is a person who has not completed 18 years of age. ‘Juvenile in conflict with law’ means a juvenile who is alleged to have committed an offence. He/she is also called a juvenile delinquent. A delinquent is an under aged person who is guilty of anti social act and whose misconduct is an attraction of law.

A juvenile delinquent is a person who breaks the law, is a vagrant, and persists in disobeying orders and whose behaviour endangers the moral well being of his own as well as of the others. Delinquency is a type of abnormality which may not be regarded as a criminal behaviour; however juvenile delinquency is injurious for children and is thus prohibited.

There are various opinions expressed regarding this behaviour such as bad company, adolescent instability, mental and emotional conflicts, social suggestibility, motion pictures, poor recreation, vocational dissatisfaction, and physical conditions. However, explanation of delinquency in terms of living in slums, broken homes, films, or moral deprivation etc. have failed to provide a comprehensive regarding this issue.

For the purpose of eradicating juvenile delinquency, the government has established and maintained institutions of observation homes and special homes with all facilities for the temporary reception of any child in case of a conflict with the law. The government has recognised reputed and capable voluntary organizations and provided them assistance to set up and administer as many shelter homes for children or juveniles as may be required.

Communal means pertaining to a community engaged in or involving two or more communities. A community consists of people organised into a social unit. In India, a community is often organised on the basis of caste or religion. It is something that constitutes a common interest, common language, common government which is formed by any number of individuals.

India is a multi linguistic, multi religious, and multi racial country. We can find conflicts between different groups of people based on the caste, religion and race. After India gained its independence, which was on the basis of Hindu and Muslim communities i.e. India and Pakistan, it flamed the communal riots among the Hindus and the Muslims where millions were rendered homeless while many lost their homes but the worst part was that it gave rise to communal tension which has not been put to an end till now.

Communal tensions rise when there is contradiction between two groups on the question of language, community, culture, etc. During the Mughal rule, Aurangzeb inflicted much injustice and misery on the Hindus and in return, many Hindu rulers retaliated in a violent way. Many parties were also started based on the communal interests which led to conflicts. When the communities live as a separate section, there is a chance to develop tensions between them because of their varied modes of life. Hatred and disgust is also another cause for the communal tension which can arise on false thoughts which are based on ignorance.

Some of the social causes also promote communal tensions. Muslims slaughter cow and this injures the feelings of the Hindus whereas many Hindus find it objectionable to form a close relationship with Muslims as they follow another religion. The different customs followed by these communities is also a reason for them to look at each other in a slightly different manner.

For communal harmony, it is necessary to make a concerted effort and both the government and the people have to co-operate if any success is to be achieved in this regard. The mass media should be used in a form of creating a healthy national opinion. Historical events where both the hindus and the muslims worked together for the national interest should be promoted. The political parties which are formed on the basis of communalism should be banned and there should be formation of youth organization which should include people from both the communities.

Casteism in India is one of the social problems that are prevalent in India. It refers to the hatred for one caste by the other or the attempts of the members of one caste to gain advantage for them to the detriment of the interest of the fellowmen of the other castes. It is a result of the growing clash between various castes for higher share in the socio economic privileges and power but the feelings of deprivation are fanned mainly by a few individuals for their own benefits in the name of the caste as a whole.

Kaka Kelelkar says that casteism is an overriding blind and supreme group loyalty that ignores the healthy social standards of justice, fair play, equality and universal brotherhood. Prasad D.N. says that casteism is loyalty to the caste translated into politics. The causes of casteism are the sense of caste prestige, marriage restrictions, illiteracy, communication propaganda, etc. The effects of casteism are the hindrance to the nationality, danger to democracy, moral degradation etc.

The old use of the term caste has changed in the present times. Now the members of the scheduled casts are proud of saying that they belong to a particular case and are even adding their caste names to their personal names. Caste sanctions have also become weak and do not operate with the same force in all sections of Indian society. The political use of caste is increasing day by day in every region of India. The structure and function of caste system have weakened and the association between caste and occupation is now a thing of the past. Many new occupations are being created where people of all castes meet freely and work together.

After India gained independence, the caste system has seen some drastic changes. Untouchability, the most undesirable feature of the caste system, has received a severe setback and is disappearing from the society. The caste panchayats used to wield all the authority and the Brahmins enjoyed a superior position, however in the modern times, village panchayats, trade unions, and the state are the exclusive features and the supremacy of the Brahmins has vanished from the society.  

The Indian constitution gives reservation to the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes in the Legislative Assembly and the House of the People in articles 332 and 330 respectively. They have also been given reservations in education, jobs and at other places so that they are given an equal opportunity as compared to others and also to take care of their financial interests.

Law is the body of principles recognised and applied by the State in the administration of justice. It is a body of rules which guides human conduct in the society and is a means of social control. Every society has its own legal system and is imposed by the authorities. Those who deviate from the law are usually given the punishment of various kinds such as fines, imprisonment, exile, or death. Law means justice, morality, reason, order, and righteousness from the view point of the society. It is term used to define legal order which represents the regime of adjusting relation, and ordering conduct by the systematic application of the force of organized political society.

It is a whole body of legal precepts which exists in a politically organized society. The function of law is to achieve justice, stability, and peaceful change. It is helpful to control natural tendencies and certain human instincts. It ensures co-operation. It acts as social rule and as an instrument of state. It is used as a means to reduce disharmony in the society.

Law is a social function, an expression of human society concerning the external relations of its individual members. The purpose of society and social relations determine the nature, purpose and function of law. In a static society, law can be used as a powerful means of social change. Law introduces a new pattern of social behavior which is more conducive to the prosperity of the society. When there are odious customs, they can be put down by the law which abolishes those customs, and make it an offence to practice them, as seen in the case of Triple Talaq. Thus, law can be used as an instrument to achieve peaceful social change.

Social legislations in India before and after the independence clearly shows the efforts of the state and the society to bring the legal norms in line with the existing social norms as well as to improve the social norms on the basis of new legal norms. 

Encounter killings is a term used to describe alleged extrajudicial killings by the police or the armed forces, supposedly in self defense, when they encounter suspected gangsters or terrorists. In India, the term became popular in the late 20^thcentury because of a very high frequency of encounter killings by police in cities such as Mumbai, Chennai, and Kolkata. The Mumbai police used encounters to attack the city’s underworld, and the practice spread to other large cities. However, there is always a speculation behind the police motivation of these reported incidents, and further complain that the wide acceptance of the practice has led to incidents of police staging fake encounters to cover up the killings of suspects when they are either in custody or are unarmed.

After the encounter of Vikas Dubey and the 4 people accused by the Telengana police in the Hyderabad rape and murder case, questions have been raised over the legality and appropriateness of the police action leading to the debate that ‘whether a democratic country should follow the constitutional norms and adhere to the due process of law or shall it adopt the measure of retributive justice to bring instant and speedy justice to the victims.

On such extra judicial killings, the National Human Rights Commission and the Supreme Court have laid down proper guidelines and procedures that must be followed in order to prevent any abuse of the power by the law enforcement agencies. In its landmark judgment, the Supreme Court had warned the policemen that they would not be excused for committing murder in the name of encounter on the pretext that they were carrying out the orders of their superior officers.

Article 21 of the Indian constitution states that no person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except in accordance with the procedure established by law. This means that before depriving a person of their right to life, the person must be informed about the charges against them and must be given the opportunity to defend themselves. However, fake encounters step aside these legal procedures as it essentially means killing a person without a trial.

The police force has the right to injure or kill the criminal for the sole purpose of self defense but nothing must be done to settle personal feuds or with mala fide motives. NHRC guidelines in 2010 highlight that if the use of force cannot be justified and the death falls outside the jurisdiction of the above mentioned reasons, it is a crime and police officer would be guilty of culpable homicide.

Cold war is a state of tension between two big powers. It is used to describe the period which emerged after the Second World War. When the Second World War ended, both the United States of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republic were clearly the masters of the world. The main cause of this tension was the difference in the opinion of these superpowers as the US was in the favor of Capitalism and the USSR was in the favor of Socialism. The hostility continued for the next 45 years. It is not an actual or direct war but is a diplomatic war fought with potent weapons like formation military alliances, spying, propaganda, and economic and military alliances.

The US was of the ideology that all industries, business and agriculture should be owned by private people or firms. Competition between rival factories or shops or firms will cause the prices to fall and will make them more efficient. The USSR on the other hand believed that everything belongs to the state and should be run by the government on behalf of the people. A classless society can be achieved by overthrowing capitalism by revolution.

Another cause for the cold war was that both the nations wanted domination over the world as both the nations were considered to be super powers. They also wanted control over the entire Germany as it was divided into two parts on the basis of ideology they followed. This war between the superpowers influenced the foreign policies, political institutions, and economic systems in almost every corner of the world.

Each side thought that the other one was trying to rule the world and neither of them would give up and it was feared that another war would erupt. This time it could have been a nuclear war. as both the nations were well equipped in ammunition, and it would destroy the whole planet. The countries began to form alliances to protect themselves. This led to the formation of NATO and Warsaw Pact.

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was established by a treaty in 1949 which established a system of collective defense whereby it member states agree to mutual defense in response to an attack by any external party. Its original members were – United States, United Kingdom, Canada, France, Denmark, Italy, Norway, Portugal, Belgium, Netherlands, and Luxembourg. Later Greece and West Germany also joined.

The Warsaw Pact was the socialist response to NATO and was signed on May 1, 1955 in Warsaw Poland. Military treaty, which bound its signatories to come to the aid of the others, should any one of them be the victim of foreign aggression. Its original members were – Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, East Germany, Poland, Romania, the USSR, and the Czechoslovak Republic.

 The cold war ended in 1990 when the soviet was defeated from Afghanistan and the Soviet Union was divided into different countries. 

Social media is a helpful tool to raise awareness about various social issues that happen all around the world. One such awareness campaign that is going all over the instagram is the Black and White photo challenge, where the person who is challenged has to put a black and white photo of them on the social media platform with the hash tags #blackandwhitephotochallenge and #challenge accepted. More than 53,00,000 people have participated in this challenge and posted their photos. Women, including the celebrities, are posting their pictures as a sign of women empowerment.

The challenge is said have began in Turkey where there was a sudden spike in gender based violence, along with nearly 474 murders of women in a society that has already normalized honor killings and domestic violence; not just at the hands of partners or husbands but also from the male members of the family.

In an article is was said that, ‘what is now a light hearted expression of female solidarity was originally, in Turkey, a campaign inspired by both the soaring rates of violence against women and the brutal murder of a 27 year old student named Pinar Gultekin. Turkish women wake up every day and see a black and white photo of women who has been murdered, either on their instagram feed or their newspapers or television. This challenge was thus started as a way for women to raise their voices and to stand in solidarity with the women we have lost.

The Turkish government has failed its women, so they need to take this matter in their own hands to create awareness. In 2011, the Istanbul convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence was signed by a number of European countries however, the Turkish government is now backing out of this. Thus we need to back the power and use our voices or whatever small or big privilege we have and effectively use the challenge to raise our voices to create awareness about gender based violence.

The vaccine race for covid-19 is going hotter in this days,as per latest reports Russia is planning to launch its vaccine on 12 th August 2020,it’s going to available in the market from October

Oxford university vaccine has already began its phase 2 and 3 in India with serum institute,this vaccine is planning to launch in October

According to sources,the vaccine will be available from October,and will reach to every citizen by 2021,around 150 countries are in the vaccine race