Underground train system used to carry large numbers of passengers within urban and suburban areas, also known as subway, tube, or metro. Subways are normally built beneath city streets to make construction easier, but they may take detours and must occasionally cross rivers. The system’s outskirts usually emerge aboveground as conventional trains or elevated transit lines. The majority of subway trains are made up of multiple cars that operate on a multiple-unit basis.

Charles Pearson, a city solicitor, suggested the first subway system for London as part of a city improvement proposal shortly after the Thames Tunnel opened in 1843. Parliament approved the building of a 3.75-mile underground railway between Farringdon Street and Bishop’s Road, Paddington, after ten years of debate. Cut-and-cover construction on the Metropolitan Railway began in 1860, with trenches dug along the streets, brick sides added, girders or a brick arch added for the roof, and the highway restored on top.

London’s example was followed by a slew of other cities. The first subway on the European continent, a 2.5-mile (4-kilometre) electric tube, opened in Budapest in 1896, employing single trains with trolley poles. The use of a flat roof with steel beams instead of a brick arch, and thus a smaller trench, resulted in significant cost savings over prior cut-and-cover systems.

The Metro (Chemin de Fer Metropolitan de Paris) began service in 1898 in Paris, with the first 6.25 miles (ca. 10 km) opening in 1900. The speedy pace was due to the large streets above and the modification of the French engineer Fulgence Bienvenue’s cut-and-cover approach. At regular intervals throughout the route, vertical shafts were sunk, and side trenches were dug, and masonry foundations to support timber shuttering were placed immediately beneath the road surfaces. The roof arch was then built with minimal disruption to street traffic. While this technology is still employed in Paris, it has not been widely replicated in the construction of subways abroad.

Automatic trains, which use aerospace and computer technology to design, build, and run, have been developed in a few urban regions, including the Victoria Line, a component of the London subway system (completed 1971). BART (Bay Area Rapid Transit), which opened in 1976 in the San Francisco Bay Area, was the first rapid-transit system to be intended for totally automatic operation. Trains are controlled remotely, needing only one crew member in each train to be on standby in the event of a computer breakdown. The first subway line in Washington, D.C., opened in 1976, featuring an autonomous train control system and 600-foot (183-metre) long underground coffered-vault stations.

Other elements of modern subway construction include air-conditioned trains with lightweight aluminium cars, smoother, and faster rides due to advancements in track construction and car-support systems, and attention to the architectural appearance of and passenger safety in underground stations.

When planning and constructing high-rise buildings, the aim is to create safe and livable rooms in very tall buildings; the buildings have to bear their weight, withstand wind and earthquakes, protect residents from fire, but also have to be easily accessible on the upper floors. Utilities and a comfortable climate for residents Most high-rise buildings have a steel frame that allows them to be built higher than typical reinforced concrete structural walls. Buildings are characterized by window areas created by the concept of a steel frame and a curtain wall; However, skyscrapers can also have curtain walls that mimic conventional walls and have a small window area. This is made possible by cheap energy from fossil fuels and industrially refined raw materials such as steel and concrete.

The construction of the skyscraper was made possible by the construction of steel structures, which increased the brick and mortar construction of the late 19th work. The usable area for ever-larger supporting pillars is reduced. Tubular skyscraper structures have been used since 1960, reducing the use of materials (cheaper: Willis Tower uses a third less steel than the Empire State Building), but allows for greater height; allows fewer interior columns and thus creates more usable space . The elevators are characteristic of skyscrapers, a safety elevator with which passengers can be transported comfortably and safely to the upper floors option was to use a steel frame instead of stone or brick; Otherwise, the walls of the lower floors of a tall building would be too thick to be practical.

Today’s leading elevator manufacturers are Otis, ThyssenKrupp, Schindler, and KONE. Advances in construction technology have caused skyscrapers to shrink in width and increase in height. Some of these new techniques include mass dampers to reduce vibration and oscillation and gaps to allow air to pass through, which reduces wind shear.

Basic design considerations

Good structural design is important for most construction projects, but especially important for high-rise buildings because, given the high price tag, the likelihood of catastrophic failure is small but unacceptable. For civil engineers, this is a paradox: the only way to ensure reliability is to test all failure modes in the laboratory and the real world, but the only way to understand all failure modes is to identify previously known failures. Thus, no engineer can be sure that a given structure will withstand all the stresses that could lead to failure, but they can only have a sufficiently large margin of safety to make failure acceptable due to some form of myopia or some unknown factor.

Loading and vibration

The stress in a skyscraper is in large part due to the strength of the building material itself. In most building designs, the weight of the structure is much greater than the weight of the material it supports beyond its weight., The load on the structure is much greater than the payload . The amount of building material in the lower levels of a skyscraper must  be larger than the Empire State Building. Thus the shape results exclusively from the load-bearing capacity. Posts can come in a variety of designs, the most common of which is for skyscrapers. can be divided into steel frames, concrete cores, pipe-in-pipe construction, and wall shear walls. 

Steel frame

By 1895, steel had replaced cast iron as a construction material for skyscrapers. Its malleability enabled a variety of shapes and rivets, which ensured firm connections. The simplicity of a steel frame eliminated the inefficient portion of a shear wall, the center portion, and load-bearing elements, which were consolidated in a much stronger way by allowing horizontal and vertical supports throughout. the distance between the support elements decreases, which in turn increases the amount of material to be supported. In buildings over 40 floors, this becomes inefficient and uneconomical because the usable area for the support column is reduced and the increased use of steel. 

The elevator conundrum

The invention of the elevator is a prerequisite for the invention of high-rise buildings because most people can (or can) only climb a few stairs at a time. Elevators in high-rise buildings are not only necessary aids such as running water and electricity but are also closely related to the design of the entire building . Taller buildings need more elevators to reach more floors, but elevator shafts consume valuable living space. 

Many high-rise buildings use non-standard elevators to reduce space requirements. Buildings like the former World Trade Center Tower and the John Hancock Center in Chicago use elevated lobbies where express elevators take passengers to higher floors and serve as a base for local elevators. Architects and engineers can stack elevator shafts on top of each other to save space; However, celestial corridors and high-speed elevators take up a lot of space and add to the time it takes to move between floors. Double-deck elevators, so that more people can take an elevator to two floors at each station. More than two floors can be used in an elevator, although this has never been the case. The main problem with double-deck elevators is that if only one person needs to reach a particular floor, then everyone in the elevator will be forced to stop. d Mall, Petronas Twin Towers, Willis Tower, Taipei 101 The Paradise lobby on the 44th floor of the John Hancock Center is also home to the first multi-level indoor pool, which is still the tallest in the United States.

“Ode on Indolence” was probably the second ode composed by Keats in the spring of 1819 after “Ode on Melancholy” and a few months prior “To Autumn”. When it comes to grouping of the odes together as a sequence “Indolence” is often placed first in the group, which absolutely makes sense, considering the fact that “Indolence” usually provides glimmerings of themes explored in the other five poems and also seems to portray the speaker’s initial struggle with the problems and ideas of the other odes. “Indolence” is an extraordinarily simple tale of a young man who spends a drowsy summer morning lazing around until he is nudged by a vision of Love, Ambition and Poetry. He feels brewing desire to follow the vision but in the end decides against it when the temptations of his indolent morning outweighs the temptations of love, ambition and poetry.

The principal theme of Keats’ “Ode to Indolence” holds the pleasant numbness of the speaker’s indolence state which is preferable over more exciting and engaging states of love, ambition and poetry. Anguish of morality- the pain and frustration caused by the changes and endings unavoidable in the life of a human being is one of the great themes of Keats’ poetry. In his Ode on Indolence, the speaker’s indolence in many ways seems an attempt to blur the forgetful lines that exists in this world, so that the “short fever-fit” of life can no longer seem agonizing . Love and ambition are rejected by the speaker simply because they require him to experience his own life too and hold the unavoidable promise of ending (of love, the speaker also wonders what and where it is, he notes the pale cheek and “fatigued eye,” and observes it “springs” directly from human morality). He is not interested to find out “how change the moon” and to be “sheltered from annoy” which is why poetry offers the most seductive as well as hateful, challenge to indolence. Poetry is not mortal, but it is detests to indolence and would requires the speaker to feel his life too acutely- hence, it possesses “not a joy” for him as sweet as the nothingness of indolence.

Inspite of the poem ending on a note of rejection, the endurance of the figures and the speaker’s impassioned response to them indicates that the he will eventually have to raise his head from the grass and directly confront love, ambition and poetry. A confrontation which embodies the other five odes, in which the speaker struggles with problems of creativity, morality, imagination and art. Many ideas and images in Ode of Indolence anticipates more developed ides and images in the later odes. Keats in other odes confronts some sort of divine figure, usually a goddess, in the Ode on Indolence, he confronts three. The lushly described summer landscape with its “stirring shades/ and baffled beams,” anticipated the imaginary landscape the speaker creates in “Ode to Psyche”, the experience of numbness anticipates the aesthetic numbness of “Ode to a Nightingale” and the anguished numbness of “Ode to Melancholy” the birdsong of the ‘throstle’s lay’ anticipates the nightingale and the swallows of “To Autumn.”

In this way, the “Ode on Indolence” makes somewhat a preface to all the other odes. It does not present a dramatic exploration of love, ambition and poetry, rather ignites a possibility of such a confrontation in a way that throws light on the behavior of the speaker in other odes. Its lush seductive tone and the speaker’s oscillation between temptation and rejection in the face of the figures’ persistent processional highlights a deeper and more acute poetic exploration to come. As for now the speaker is absolutely content with the numbness of his indolence.