Tag: #biology

Theories of Evolution – Lamarckism

The most important question that has always been exciting to human mind is about human origin and destination. Where did we come from and where are we heading to?

To understand the human origin and evolution, we have to first look in to the emergence of life on the earth. It is believed that life is originated from inorganic matters due to many physical-chemical conditions

Theories of Organic Evolution

The term evolution was first applied by the English philosopher Herbert Spencer, to mean the historic development in life. Evolution is a process that results inheritable changes in a population spread over many generations.

Lamarckism

Jean Baptist de Lamarck (1744-1829) was a French biologist. He spent the early part of his life as a botanist. Then at the age of 50, he turned his attention to zoology, particularly to the study of invertebrates. His extensive studies on invertebrates formed a base in zoological classification. As a result of his systematic studies, he became convinced that species were not constant but rather were derived from pre-existing ones. By consolidating all these ideas, he proposed his theory of evolution in his book Philosophie Zoologique 1809 which is known as Lamarckism.

Lamarck believed that organic changes seen in animals resulted from the influence of environment. According to him, when the environment changes, animals need to change their body structure as well. He proposed his ideas as two different laws as the following-


i) The law of use and disuse: A living body is influenced by environmental factors, and ultimately this phenomenon initiates an adaptation of organisms to their surroundings. As per the necessity, some parts of the body may be used more and more. Therefore, those parts tend to show more development or changes in the course of time, while the other parts of the body, which may not be required much, will become weak or degenerate due to constant disuse.

ii) Inheritance of acquired characters: Modifications produced during the lifetime of organisms become hereditary and will be inherited by the offspring. All the modifications that the organism acquires during its lifetime in adaptation to the environment are automatically transmitted to the next generation and so become a part of heredity

To support his theory, Lamarck presented several examples. The most remarkable one is associated with the long neck and tall front legs of giraffes. According to Lamarck, the ancestors of giraffe were normal animals with reasonably long neck and forelimbs. They depended on grass and bushy vegetation for their survival. But a sudden scarcity of leafy vegetation due to some environmental factors, forced the giraffe to depend on leaves of tall trees and for that they had to stretch their neck and forelimbs. The continuous stretching of these organs resulted in the long neck and long forelimbs of present day giraffe.

In another example, he mentioned that the ducks are unable to fly because their wings became weak, when they stopped flying. Again, the birds that started to live in an aquatic environment, gradually acquired webbed feet through the conquest of survival.

Criticism of Lamarckism

Lamarck’s theory has been criticised from many angles. The German scientist August Weismann criticised the essence of Lamarck’s theory of inheritance acquired characters by his experiments, which involved cutting off the tails of mice for over twenty-one generations. All tailless mice in all generations produced their offspring with tails. Therefore, he reached to the conclusion that the environmental factors might influence the body cells, but it is not enough to profess a change of reproductive cells. Characters of an organism would not be inherited unless the change could occur in the reproductive cells.

Characters of an organism would not be inherited unless the change could occur in the reproductive cells. According to Weismann the body of an animal is composed of two parts viz. germ plasm (germ cells) and somato plasm (body cells). Only those characters which are located in the germ plasm will be inherited.

As a result of these experiments, Lamarckian law of inheritance of acquired characters lost its evolutionary ground. But the effort towards finding facts related to organic evolution continued. Charles Darwin’s interest in this field gave birth to new findings (Darwinism).

Anthropology And Its Relation With Allied Disciplines

Anthropology And Social Sciences

1. Sociology

Sociology is a science of society that studies human behaviour in groups. Anthropology is a science of man and studies human behaviour in social surroundings. Thus it is clear that the subject matter of sociology and social anthropology is common to a great extent. Anthropologists and sociologists share an interest in
issues of race, ethnicity, social class, gender, and power relations in
modern nations.

2. Psychology

For the psychologists the focus of study is upon all aspects of human behaviour: and its personal, social and cultural dimensions which will never be complete without having the knowledge of social anthropology. Therefore, for understanding the social processes and
meanings in the world around us one has to study social anthropology.
Both Psychology and Anthropology deals with the manifold relations between individuals on the one hand and groups, communities, societies and cultures on the other hand.

3. History

History may be important to social anthropologists in the sense, that is, not only as an account of past events leading up to and explaining the present, but also as the body of contemporary ideas which
people have about these events, people’s ideas about the past are an intrinsic part of the contemporary situation which is the anthropologists immediate concern and often they have important implications for existing social relationships.

4. Folklore

Folklore has an important place in every primitive culture. It
is through the medium of folklores that the culture of a primitive society is
transmitted from one generation to the next generation. Folklores contain
the philosophy of the primitive people. How the world was evolved is a
theme of many folklores of existing tribes. In most of the folklores, a reference to the mutual relation of the people and their gods is given.

Anthropology And Biological Sciences

1. Zoology

In terms of the relationship to other animals and the overall places of the human species in the process of evolutions.
Anthropology has a sort of specialization or sharpening of certain aspects of general biology, more specifically, zoology.

2. Botany

No matter what the time period or geographical area, plants played an important role in human culture. Plant remains enable us to assess human impact on the environment. As direct, site-specific
evidence of agricultural and culinary activities, they enrich our understanding of how people lived.

3. Genetics

Genetic anthropology is the branch of scientific study which deals with combining genetic data with available physical evidence and past history. Genetic anthropology is an important branch
of anthropology. The relevance of genetics in anthropology has slowly been reinforcing the importance of nature (biology) in culture, and also
emphasises on the phenomena of variation. To study evolution, understanding genetics and variation in the anthropological context is
highly vital.

4. Medical Sciences

Quite a few things are common in
anthropology and medicine. In the proper study of mankind, anthropology aims at discovering man as a human being, so it should be the case with a physician. Anthropology can assist more clearly and
satisfactorily in identifying the health needs, and in clarifying factors influencing acceptability and utilisation of health services, and can also assist in showing how these health needs can be most appropriately
solved.

LINKAGE

We all have studied in our junior standards about cell. Cell is the the structural and functional unit of life, from them the origin of life takes place. The cell contains a nucleus which contains th genetic material for the survival of the organism DNA. DNA contains the chromosomes. There are .any several genes present on the chromosomes. As the chromosomes are the carriers of heredity they have the tendency to be inherited together, such genes are called linked genes. The tendency of two or more genes present on the same chromosomes that are inherited together is known as linkage. This phenomenon was discovered in plants by Bateson and Punnett and in animals by T.H. Morgan.

MORGAN EXPERIMENT

Morgan used Drosophila melanogaster for his experiments. He carried out many dihybrid cross experiment on drosophila melanogaster to study genes that are sex linked; for example, he and his group crossed yellow-bodied, white eyed female to the wild type with brown-bodied, red eyed males and intercrossed their F1 progeny. He observed that the two genes did not segregate independently of each other and F2 ratio deviated very significantly from 9:3:3:1 ratio. Morgan and his group knew that the genes are located on X chromosome and stated that when when two genes in a dihybrid cross are situated on the same chromosomes then the proportion of the parental combination is much higher than non parental type. This occurs due to physical association or linkage of the two genes, he also found out when genes are grouped on the same chromosomes some genes are strongly linked and some are loosely linked.

COMPLETE LINKAGE

The linked genes which are closely located on the chromosome do not separate and inherited together are called completely linked genes and the inheritance is called complete linkage.

INCOMPLETE LINKAGE

When the linked genes which are loosely located on the same chromosome and have chances of seperation by crossing over are called as incompletely linked and their inheritance is called as incomplete linkage.

VACCINE TECHNOLOGY

BY DAKSHITA NAITHANI

ABSTRACT

The immune system is a system that operates 24 hours a day, seven days a week to keep assaults at bay and diseases at bay. The whole system is made up of organs, tissues, and a variety of cell types that work together to defend the body. Immune cells must be able to tell the difference between native and non-native cells and proteins. Microbial cells have antigens that serve as identifiers. Antigens can induce an immune response in the human body. Each species has its own set of characteristics. Vaccines function by inducing an antibody memory response in the body without producing illness. As a result, you build immunity without becoming sick. It must include at least one antigen from the target species to trigger a response.

INTRODUCTION TO VACCINE TECHNOLOGY

A vaccination, often known as an immunisation, is a biological substance that protects people from disease-causing microorganisms. They make advantage of our immune system’s built-in ability to fight infection.

They’re produced from the same pathogens that cause the disease. They have, however, been destroyed or reduced to the point that they are no longer a source of it. Certain medicines just contain a part of the microorganism.

This is why they work so well as medications. They don’t treat or cure diseases like conventional medications; instead, they prevent them. They deceive the immune system that it has been invaded by a real intruder. When real germs enter our bodies, the same thing happens, but you don’t become ill. If you ever come into touch with a pathogen, your immune system will remember it and eradicate it before it can damage you.

TYPES

Vaccines are made using a number of techniques. Various vaccine types need different techniques to development. Antigens can be used in a variety of ways, including:

These can be delivered by a needle injected into the human skin, or ingested orally or through the nasal route.

LIVE (CHICKEN POX AND MMR)

Attenuated vaccines can be made in a variety of ways. All methods involving the transmission of a virus to a non-human host result in a virus that can be recognised by the immune system but cannot replicate in humans. When given to a human, the resulting will not be able to proliferate sufficiently to cause disease, but it will protect the individual from infection in the future. Its protection outlasts that of a dead or inactivated vaccination in most cases.

INACTIVATED (POLIO VIRUS)

A pathogen is inactivated using heat or chemicals to create this sort of vaccination. Because destroyed viruses are unable to replicate, they cannot revert to a more virulent form capable of causing disease. They are, however, less effective than live vaccines and are more likely to require renewals in order to acquire long-term protection.

RECOMBINANT (HPV)

They have been genetically modified in a lab. This method may be used to duplicate a certain gene. The HPV vaccine may be tailored to protect against strains that cause cervical cancer.

SUBUNIT (INFLUENZA AND ACELLULAR PERTUSSIS) AND CONJUGATE VACCINES (HAVING ONLY PIECES OF THE PATHOGEN)

Subunit vaccines use only a fraction of a target pathogen to elicit a response. This can be accomplished by isolating and administering a specific pathogen protein as a stand-alone antigen.

Conjugate vaccines, like recombinant vaccines, are made up of two different components. The “piece” of microbe being supplied would not typically elicit a substantial reaction on its own, but the carrier protein would. The bacterium is not the sole cause of the disease, but when combined with a carrier protein, it can render a person resistant to subsequent infections.

TOXOIDS (DIPHTHERIA AND TETANUS)

Some diseases are caused by a toxin produced by bacterium rather than by the bacterium themselves. Toxoids are inactivated toxoids that are used in vaccinations. Toxoids are classed as killed vaccines, although they are sometimes given their own category to emphasise the fact that they include an inactivated toxin.

DEVELOPMENT AND PRODUCTION

Vaccine development is a lengthy process that involves both public and private parties and takes almost a decade. Millions of individuals receive them each year, and the most of them have been in use for decades. Before being included in a country’s vaccination programme, they must undergo extensive testing to ensure their safety. Each vaccine in development must first go through screenings and evaluations to determine which antigen should be utilised to elicit a reaction. This step is completed without the use of humans. Animals are used to assess the safety and disease-prevention potential of experimental vaccinations.

STAGE 1

It takes around 2-4 years to produce and necessitates some fundamental research. Antigens, whether natural or synthetic, are identified by scientists and may help in disease prevention or therapy. Antigens might be virus-like particles, attenuated viruses or bacteria, weakened bacterial toxins, or other pathogen-derived substances.

STAGE 2

Using tissue or cell-culture techniques and animal testing, studies assess the candidate vaccine’s safety or ability to elicit an immune response. Animal topics include fish, monkeys, and mice. These studies give an idea of what to expect in terms of cellular responses in people. This period often lasts 1-2 years.

PHASE I TRIALS

The vaccine is administered to a small number of volunteers to determine its safety, confirm that it induces a reaction, and determine the optimum dosage. This round of testing is carried out on young, healthy adult participants. The goals are to determine the type and number of reactions generated by the candidate vaccine, as well as to assess the candidate vaccine’s safety.

PHASE II TRIALS

The vaccine is then given to several hundred participants to assess its safety and ability to elicit a response. Participants in this phase share the same traits as the vaccine’s intended recipients. Several studies are often undertaken during this phase to test various age groups and vaccination formulations. In most studies, a non-vaccinated group is included as a comparison group to check if the changes in the vaccinated group were due to chance or medicine.

PHASE III TRIALS

The goal is to assess vaccine safety in a large group of patients. Certain rare side effects may not have showed themselves in the low numbers of people tested in the first phase. Thousands of volunteers are given the vaccination compared to a similar number of individuals who did not receive the injection but received a comparator product to assess the vaccine’s efficacy against the illness. It is meant to protect against and to examine its safety in a much bigger group of people. To guarantee that the performance findings are applicable to a wide variety of persons, the bulk of phase three trials are conducted across various countries and different sites within a country.

PHASE IV TRIALS

Firms may conduct optional studies following the launch of a vaccine. The producer may do additional testing to determine the vaccine’s safety, efficacy, and other potential applications.

REVERSE VACCINOLOGY

Reverse vaccinology is the use of genetic information combined with technology to make vaccines without the use of microorganisms. It assists in the study of an organism’s genome for the purpose of identifying novel antigens and epitopes that may be utilised as prospective candidates. This method has been around for at least a decade. By unravelling the entire genomic sequence, it is possible to determine what molecules make up the genomic sequence. Without needing to grow the pathogen for a longer amount of time, candidate antigens can be discovered.

Reverse vaccinology has been used to create vaccines for meningococcal and staphylococcal diseases all over the world. Infections are caused by Staphylococcus bacteria, which can be found on the skin or in the nose of even healthy persons. The bacteria Neisseria meningitidis causes a serious infection of the thin covering of the brain and spinal cord.

PRODUCTION QUALITY CONTROL AND COMMERCIALIZATION

Vaccines are biological compounds that are frequently hybridised and complex to understand. They are made through a succession of manufacturing and formulation steps, with the finished product often containing a large number of component items. As a result, unlike a tiny molecule medicine, the finished product is impossible to classify. This needs a highly controlled production system as well as a personnel capable of performing such processes on a continual basis. Control testing takes over two years and occupies more than half of the time in the subsequent manufacturing process.

 STEP 1- PRODUCTION

Following clinical trials, when a vaccine reaches the pre-approval stage, it is evaluated by the applicable regulatory authority for quality, safety requirements.

STEP -2 MAKING

Businesses will create development plans for a vaccine on their own. Once a vaccine is approved, production begins to pace up. The antigen has been rendered inactive. All of the components are mixed to make the final product. The entire process, from testing to manufacturing, can take a lengthy time to complete.

STEP- 3 PACKAGING

It is then bottled in glass vials and packed for safe cold storage and transportation once it is produced in bulk. It must be able to resist severe temperatures as well as the dangers associated with international shipping. As a result, glass is the most often used material for vials since it is robust and can keep its integrity under severe extrinsic factors.

 STEP- 4 STORAGE

When it is excessively hot or cold, it loses its effectiveness and may even become inert. Vaccinations can be destroyed or rendered dangerous to use if kept at the improper temperature. Most vaccinations must be kept chilled between 2 and 8 degrees Celsius, necessitating the use of specialist medical freezers.

STEP-5 SHIPPING

They are transported out using particular equipment so as to maintain its integrity. Lorries deliver them from the airport to the warehouse cool room after supplies arrive in the market. New innovations have resulted in the development of portable devices that can keep vaccines cold for several days without the need of power.

QUALITY CONTROL

Once they are given out, authorities continuously check for – and assess the severity of – any potential side effects and responses from the recipients. Safety is a top priority, with frequent reviews and post-approval clinical trials reporting on its effectiveness and safety.

CAREER SCOPE

There are several prospects in vaccine research and development, clinical trials, vaccine manufacturing, and public distribution. These jobs are available at universities, companies, government laboratories and agencies, hospitals, and on the front lines of vaccine distribution all around the world. When different components of a project are handled by different groups at the same time in industry, greater teamwork is usually required, whereas a scientist in an academic lab may be a lone worker overseeing all parts of a project.

The balance between creative science and all of the business administration that comes with securing money, maintaining a budget, and overseeing other scientists or assistants is the most challenging aspect.

 Research allows scientists to work on a project that has the potential to have a direct influence on public health, whether it’s on a lab bench, a production line, or to support a clinical trial.

What are germs?

The term “germ” encompasses an army of tiny terrors, including viruses, fungi, parasites, and bacteria. These “pathogens” all have the ability to spread from victim to victim(called a host). Germs are so small you can see them only through a microscope. They look like spiky blogs, oozing spirals,hairy hotdogs, or other microscopic monsters.

Why are germs bad for us?

These microorganisms hitch a ride into our bodies on the food we eat, in the air we breathe, or through a variety of other methods. Once they have invaded our personal spaces, germs reproduce and create toxic waste, which triggers our body’s most repulsive reactions. They make us sniffle, upchuck, run to the toilet, break out in rashes and fevers, and suffer even more unpleasant symptoms.

How do we get sick from viruses?

Most viruses are frail little things ( unlike bacteria and fungi, viruses are not even alive ) that can multiply only inside a living host ( including animals, plants, and even bacteria). There they spread overwhelming and attacking the host’s immune system and causing all sorts of nasty symptoms. Colds, flus, chicken pox, immune disorders, and measles are caused by viruses. Among the worst is a Ebola, which triggers bleeding and is fatal more than half the people who catch it.

How do we get sick from fungi?

Fungi are microscopic molds, yeasts, and other plant like pathogens that thrive in wet, warm places like our armpits, our belly buttons, and the dank spaces between our toes. They feed on our respect and dead tissues and produce stinky wastes that irritate our skin.

How do we get sick from parasites?

This ghastly germ group includes itty-bitty insect larvae, amoebas, and one celled organisms called Protozoa that live in nasty food, damp soil, or dirty water. Parasites depend on a living host for their survival. They sneak into our bodies in tainted water and food, costing of all sorts of gastrointestinal gripes: diarrhoea, vomiting, upset stomachs, and worse. Malaria – common diseases that causes chills, shaking, and fevers – is spread by a parasite passed in mosquito bites. These life-sucking relationships are often the stuff of nightmares.

How do we get sick from bacteria?

Unlike viruses, bacteria are living single celled organisms that can reproduce both outside and inside the body. Like all living things, bacteria create waste -microscopic poops that can act as a poison inside the host. You can blame sore throat, ear infections and tooth-tartar buildup on bacteria. One of the most famous bacteria is Escherichia coli. This rod shaped micorbe lives deep in your intestines, the body’s busiest bacterial neighborhood. Harmful ones make you puke for days.E.coli strains produce an important vitamin. That’s right – some bacteria are actually good for you!

How many bacteria are inside our body right now?

Your body is built of trillions of itty-bitty living blobs, called cells, that work together to make you you. But for every cell you call your own, ten foreign bacteria cluster around or near it. You are a microbe metropolis! Scientists call these communities of foreign bacteria your body’s “flora”, and no two people host the same mix of microorganisms. In fact, scientists are beginning to think of your flora as just another organ.

Can we see these bacteria?

No, they are microscopic. But you can certainly smell them. Like any living thing, bacteria eat, reproduce,die, and create waste which can make your life stink – literally !(Bacteria are the source of bad breath and body odor.)

Benefits of Bacteria

Your gut reaction might be to wrinkle your nose at the thought of bacteria inside your guts, but it turns out that many so-called good bacteria are essential to your health, the survival of life on Earth, and the making of tasty foods. Behold, the benefits of a microscopic allies…

Health boosting

Your body’s microbes support your immune system, which fights sickness.

Plant feeding

Blue-green algae and other types of bacteria convert the nitrogen in the air into compounds plants can use.

Food processing

Micorbes in our innards play a huge role in the digestive process, helping us absorb nutrients and vitamins from our food.

Food making

Bacteria are a vital ingredient in the process of turning milk into yogurt and tasty cheeses. The holes in Swiss cheese are created by carbon dioxide bubbles exhaled by bacteria during the cheese making process.

Planet Cleaning

Bacteria breakdown dead animals and plants, which “decompose” into nutrients for the living.

References :

WHY?-Answers to everything, Image publications.

Why can I survive without all my organs?

It is a no-brainer that you need your brain and your heart, hurtand you wouldn’t last long if your liver failed.

But the lungs and Kidneys come in pairs, so you could survive if one of them failed. People who have lost their spleens in accidents have gone on to live healthy lives. The tonsils and appendix, meanwhile, are practically useless and are routinely removed when they become inflamed.

Why are some body parts pointless?

Called “vestigial” organs, this useless body parts are leftovers from our evolutionary ancestors, who actually needed them. Take your wisdom teeth, for example.Today crowd our mouth and often need to get yanked by the dentist, but our primate ancestors had larger jaws and needed the extra choppers in case some rotted away in the days before tartar-control toothpaste. Our tailbone – or coccyx – is a leftover from animals that needed tails for balance or grasping branches.

Why do we have eyebrows?

Humans have evolved to become less hairy in the past six million years or so, but we still have those clumps of fur above our eyes.Beyond their role in facial expressions, eyebrows act like natural sweatbands, preventing rain and sweat from running directly into our eyes.

Why do we have nipples?

They were there even before you were even born. Human embryos in the womb develop according to a blueprint that’s design for males and females. Eventually, the embryo begin to take on features specific to their gender, but not until after they have already developed nipples. Later in life, chemicals called hormones trigger changes in females so that they can nurse their young. Males don’t have those hormones, so they are stuck with nipples that are nothing more than chest accessories. Other than a few exceptions ( mice, platypuses, stallions), most male mammals have nipples. Nipples don’t cause males any harm, which is probably why evolution hasn’t given them the ol’ heave – ho.

Why do people get goosebumps?

Like youryou are wisdom teeth and your tailbone, goose bumps serve no purpose in modern humans. They are created by itty-bitty muscles in our hair follicles, which raise the bumps as a reflex reaction sudden drop in temperature or feelings of panic, or anger, or extreme fear. Goosebumps fluffed up the body hair of our much furrier ancestors to help trap heat or make them look larger to threatening animals. Today, goose bumps just make you look like you need to borrow a sweater.

Why do we have a belly button?

For the same reason dolphinsthe same reason dolphins, cats, dogs, bats, and other “placental mammals ” – animals nourished inside their mothers before birth – have navels. In other words, you can thank your mother for that link connector on your stomach. Before you were born, when you were still developing in the womb, you were hooked up to your life – support system through a special code that plugged into your navel. Through this “umbilical cord “, you received food and oxygen and passed waste. The day you were born, you let out a cry and began breathing on your own. That let the doctor know he or she could cut off the umbilical cord, leaving you with a belly button as a souvenir. Whether it’s an “innie” or an “outie,” we all have one !

References :

WHY – Answers to everything, Impulse publications.

Health Benefits Of Natural Medicines.

NATURE’S MEDICINES.

The plant world is an immense store of active chemical compounds. Nearly half = the medicines we use today are herbal in origin, and a quarter contains plant extracts or active chemicals taken directly from plants. Many more are yet to be discovered, recorded and researched; only a few thousand have been studied. Across the globe, the hunt will always be on to find species that could form the bases of new medicines. Humans have always used plants to ease their pains. They imbued them with magical powers and then gradually learnt to identify their properties. We can now enjoy the benefits of herbal medicines because, over thousands of years, our ancestors discovered which plants were medicinally beneficial and which were highly toxic.

Thousands of years ago, the ancient Egyptians discovered simple ways to extract and use the active ingredients within plants. Egyptian papyrus manuscripts from 2000 B.C. record the use of perfumes and fine oils, and aromatic oils and gums in the embalming process.

In ancient Greece in the 5th and the 4th centuries BC, Hippocrates, the father of medicine, was already recommending asparagus and garlic for their diuretic qualities, poppy as a way of inducing sleep and willow leaves to relieve pain and fever. In the 1st century AD, another Greek doctor, Dioscorides, established the first collection of medicinal plants. His treatise on the subject was translated into Arabic and Persian. Centuries later, his work was also used by the Muslim scholars who influenced great universities of the period, particularly at Montpellier, Europe’s most famous centre for the study of botany.

As a result of trade with Africa and Asia, the Western world’s store of herbal medicines was enriched by the inclusion of camphor, cinnamon, ginger, ginseng, nutmeg, sandalwood, turmeric and henna. For a long time, however, the use of both local plants and those with more distant origins was based on more or less fanciful beliefs. Throughout the Middle Ages herbal medicine consisted of a mixture of magic, superstition and empirical observation. From the Renaissance onwards, scientists and their scientific studies, discoveries and inventions came to the fore, rejecting alchemists’ elixirs and other magical remedies. Local plants were carefully collected and widely used to make infusions, decoctions and ointments. These plants make up the major part of the traditional cures that we have inherited.

Chandan or sandalwood sticks.

History behind Nature’s Medicines:

In the late 1700s, Carl Wilheim Scheele, a gifted Swedish chemist, obtained tartaric acid from grapes, citric acid from lemons and malic acid from apples. The techniques that he and his contemporaries used led to the isolation of the first purified compounds from plants that could be used as drugs. First came the isolation of morphine from the opium poppy in 1803, then caffeine from coffee beans in 1819, quinine from cinchona bark and colchicines from meadow saffron both in 1820 and atropine from deadly nightshade in 1835.

Image Source -google.

One tree that generated considerable interest among scientists was the willow. In the early 1800s, chemists from Germany, Italy and France began the search for the compounds responsible for the acclaimed pain-relieving effects of its bark. In 1828, the German pharmacist, Johann Buchner, was the first to obtain salicin, the major compound in a pure form. In 1838, the Italian chemist, Raffaele Piria also obtained salicylic acid from the bark by various chemical processes. But these early compounds caused blisters in the mouth, and stomach upsets when ingested. In 1853, a French chemist, Charles Frederic Gerhardt, synthesised a modified form of salicylic acid-acetylsalicylic acid. But still it wasn’t further modified form developed for more than 40 years until a German chemist, Felix Hoffman, working for Bayer, rediscovered Gerhardt’s compound. Hoffman gave it to his father who suffered from arthritis and reported the beneficial effects.

Bayer decided to market the acetylsalicylic acid as a new drug for pain relief and patented the compound acetylsalicylic acid in 1899. At last from the willow, the first modern drug was born and, with 12000 tons of aspirin sold every year throughout the world, it has kept its number one position.

From the 1930s onwards, advances in chemistry have made it much easier to reproduce the active ingredients in plants. But plants will continue to have a medicinal importance in their own right. Their active constituents may be slightly modified to improve their efficiency or to reduce their undesirable effects, but they are still vital for the treatment of disorders such as cancers and heart diseases or as a means of combating malaria. And they remain the essence of herbal medicine-an area that has still not been fully understood and explored.

BENEFITS OF INTERMITTENT FASTING(IF)

 So, if you’re the one person who runs away from exercise and workout and still dream of a HEALTHY LIFESTYLE, let me bust out an age old myth about fasting for you. How can fasting benefit one’s body? What does intermittent fasting do to your body? Is a sixteen hour fast beneficial for your health? These are the type of questions that generally arise in our skeptical minds when we hear about intermittent fasting. Well, if you too find yourself in middle of these questions, then you have reached the right place. We’ll provide you with ample reasons to choose this fasting in order to benefit your inner and outer self.

Intermittent fasting is one of the most aired dieting methods these days, a pattern of eating and fasting in a cycle within 24 hours.

There are different patterns of intermittent fasting, the most common being the 16/8 (16 hours of fasting window and 8 hours of eating window) pattern. Others can be 20/4, 5:2 pattern etc.

You will be shocked to know that it is a scientifically proven method of improving your mental and physical health.

So here we bring your attention to some of the top benefits of intermittent fasting: 

1.CHANGES HORMONE, CELLS AND GENE FUNCTION

Many changes occur in our body while we don’t eat. Our body changes the level and functions of the hormones to allow them to use the stored fat for primary energy generation. It also initiates the repair of damaged body cells. 

Some of the aforesaid changes occurring in our body due to fasting are;

a. Increase in Human Growth Hormone (HGH)–

The exotic increase in level of HGH in blood leads to high fat burning, repair of tissues in the brain, boost in metabolism and gain in muscle mass, that’s why it is very common in body building industry.

b. Lowering the Insulin level-

Keeping the insulin level low in the blood is the main aim of IF. During the fasting window the insulin level of body lowers down dramatically and reverses the formation of fat and hence, you lose fat. Lowering in insulin also prevents diabetes. 

c. Repair of cells-

During IF, our body cells rejuvenate, cleanse themselves of all waste materials and repair themselves with the help of HGH in order to become stress resistant.

d. Correcting Gene expression-

IF affects different gene expressions to cures many diseases and health problems at genetic levels like cancer etc.

2. LOSING WEIGHT

                   While following an intermittent fasting routine; the body lowers the level of insulin, increases the level of HGH and increases amount of noradrenaline. This consequently leads to burning of excess body fat which is then converted into energy, that is utilized by the body for its daily activities.

                  It also breaks down visceral fat from our abdominal cavity that otherwise is hazardous for our physical well-being. So basically, IF takes down our calorie intake in order to boost our metabolism and correct our lifestyle.

3.IMPROVES BRAIN FUNCTION AND IMMUNE SYSTEM

                      As the metabolic activity of the body improves, so does the condition of the brain which is the most important part of our body. IF reduces inflammation, oxidative stress, blood sugar and insulin resistance of our body which leads to the growth of new nerve cells. It also leads to the secretion of brain hormones which prevents depression and brain damage like strokes.

IF even protects the body against incurable disease like Alzheimer’s.

4.PROTECTS FROM HEART DISEASES

               The intake of healthy IF diet leads to almost no formation of low-density lipoprotein or bad cholesterol which prevents heart attack and also reduces the risk of high blood pressure and other inflammatory diseases of heart. According to new research, regular follow up of IF can considerably lower the rate of heart failure and can add more years to someone’s life.

5. INCREASES LIFE LONGITIVITY

                   Taking an IF diet can persistently uplift a poor lifestyle of a person and help him get rid of heart diseases, abnormal blood pressure, atypical brain problems, obesity, fatigue etc. This, thus, brings the overall health of  a person in the right track also benefitting him from over-aging by repairing the body cells timely. 

LET US KNOW IF YOU HAVE ANY QUESTIONS AND IF YOU WANT ANOTHER ARTICLE ON HOW TO START INTERMITTENT FASTING.

                       

                  

                   

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Science and technology play a huge role in our society as well as in our lives. Nowadays we all are surrounded by technology and are dependent on it for everything we do. Especially after this pandemic everything is in virtual mode and is completely based on technology. We live in the technological era where gadgets are of outmost importance to us. A gadget is simply a human made device which is programmed to reduce human effort and does a piece of job easily without any hassle.

In this fast-growing world we human beings are always surrounded by machines and gadgets for every need of ours starting from the time we get up in the morning till we again go to bed we even use gadgets while we are asleep such as air conditioner, insect repellent and many more. Science is a boon for us, but in the other hand as everything has its own merits and demerits there are also people who do use science for a bad cause. Technology is good but it is advisable to keep this technology out of the reach of children as otherwise they will not tend to learn things and will prefer to take the help of science to solve a particular existing problem this may affect their growth.

IMPORTANCE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY :


Technology, science and knowledge are important in modern contemporary society. Essential questions include the following : How does science and technology produce new products, new ways of living and new nutritious? Why is new technology and knowledge so fundamental to us in the ways through which we imagine the future?


Technology, knowledge and science are fundamental in modern contemporary society. The understanding of how social, cultural and material elements influence the production of new practices, new ways of under of contemporary postmodern society. Studies of technology and science provides students with insight into how different processes of knowledge are initiated and progressed, and how innovative technological processes are developed employed and increase in importance.
In this manner, students will be provided with the academic basis for working with detailed analyses of different forms of technologies and process of knowledge within business life or industry and commerce, research work , political development, management of knowledge and innovation.


THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY :


Science , technology and innovation each represent a successively larger category of activities which are highly interdependent but distinct. Science contributes to technology in at least six ways.

  1. New knowledge which serves as a direct source of ideas of new technological possibilities.
  2. Source from tools and techniques for more efficient engineering design and a knowledge based for evaluation of feasibility of designs
  3. Research instrumentation, laboratory techniques and analytical methods used in research that eventually find their way into design or industrial practices, often through intermediate disciplines.
  4. Practice of research as a source for development and assimilation of new human skill and capabilities eventually useful for technology.
  5. Creation of a knowledge base that becomes increasingly important in the assessment of technology in terms of its wider social and environmental impacts
  6. Knowledge base that enables more efficient strategies of applied research, development, and refinement of new technologies.

THe ROLE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY


Teaching technological literacy, critical thinking and problem- solving through science education gives students the skills and knowledge they need to succeed in school and beyond.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY USED IN SOCIETY :


Science and technology have had a major impact on society, and their impact is growing. By making life easier, science has given an the chance to pursue societal concerns such as ethics, aesthetics, education and justice to create cultures, and to improve human conditions.

BIODIVERSITY

The different types of organisms found in an area is known as biodiversity or you can define it in a more accurately as ” the totality of genes, species, and ecosystems of a region”.

Biodiversity differ from place to place and dependence of human population has been enormously increased on biodiversity for their necessities.

The known and described number of species of all organisms on the earth is between 1.7 and 1.8 million which is fewer than 15 percent of the actual number. The predicted number of total species varies from 5 to 50 million averages at 14 million. About 61 per cent of the known species are insects. A large number of plant species and vertebrates are known. There are many more species that have not been described.

Biological diversity includes three hierarchical levels :

1. Genetic diversity

We know that each species, varying from bacteria to higher plants and animals, stores an immense amount of genetic information.

Genetic diversity refers to the variation of genes within species. The genetic diversity enables a population to adapt to its environment and to respond to natural selection. If a species has more genetic diversity, it can adapt better to the changed environmental conditions.

2. Species diversity

Species are distinct units of diversity, each play specific role in an ecosystem.

Species diversity refers to the variety of species within a region. Simplest measure of species diversity is species richness, I.e., the number of species per unit area. The no. Of species increases with the area of the site. Generally, greater the species richness, greater is the species diversity

3. Community and Ecosystem Diversity

Diversity at the level of. community and ecosystem has three perspectives. :-

◆ Alpha diversity ( within community diversity). Refers to the diversity of organism sharing the same habitat.

◆ Beta diversity ( between community diversity). Refers to species composition of community along environmental gradient.

◆ Gamma diversity ( diversity of the habitats over the total landscape or geographical area) Greater the dissimilarity between communities, higher is the beta diversity

USES OF BIODIVERSITY

● source of food and Improved Varieties. ● Drugs and Medicines. ● Aesthetic and cultural Benefits. ● Ecosystem service

THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY

● Habitat loss and fragmentation. ● Disturbance and pollution. ● Introduction of exotic Species. ● Extinction of species.

CONVERSATION OF BIODIVERSITY

Conversation of biodiversity is now important for us. We know that ecosystem are undergoing change due to pollution, invasive species, over exploitation by humans, and climate change.

Most people are beginning to recognise that diversity at all levels – gene pool, species and biotic community is important and need conservation.

There are two basic strategies of biodiversity conservation, institute (on site) and exsitu ( off site).

° Insitu conservation strategies

The in situ strategies emphasis protection of total ecosystems. The in situ approach includes protection of a group of typical ecosystem through a network of protected areas.

Protected Areas

These are areas of land and sea, especially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity. Examples are National parks and wildlife sanctuaries.

Biosphere Reserves

It is special category of protected areas of land and coastal environment where people are integral components of the system. There are 13 biospheres in india.

Sacred forests and sacred lakes

These are forest patches of varying dimensions protected by tribal community due to religious factors.

° Exsitu conversation strategies

Cryopreservation

In vitro conservation especially in liquid nitrogen at a temperature of -196℃. It is a storage of vegetatively propagated crops like potato.

Scope of Biology

Biology is not only the study that unveils mysterious secrets of the world, but it is also a field of education and employment.

Professional scopes are doctors, nurses, pharmacologists, scientists, research scholars, etc.

vocal sources include lecturers, teachers, professors, etc.

Research scientist, forensic scientist, biotechnologist, pharmacologist, biologist, ecologist, nature conservation officer are some careers that a biology student can choose according to his/her interest.

practical application of the scope of biology in different fields: 

Agriculture

It gives important useful information about fertilizers, pesticides and insecticides that must be used. It has great application in the development of disease-resistant varieties, better production of crops in terms of quality and quantity, etc. A major aspect of agriculture like maintenance of field and soil, nutrients requirements of various species of plants are also studied under biology. 

Medicine

It can be considered as a boon to medicine. Be it a simple disease or contagious disease. Drugs need to be there to cure it. It can be in the form of vaccines or steroids or drugs. For example, the current pandemic situation is being cured by detailed study of the virus and creating effective vaccines.

Industries

Various industries use plant and animal products as their raw material. So basically, it is the study of plants and animals that helps in running an industry. Major industries include dairy, food, leather, textile, paper, jute, etc.

Conservation of the Biosphere

Conserving our ecosystem is an important aspect of the present scenario.

It has become very important to maintain stability in the environment. The study of biology helps in preventing the extinction of flora and fauna by conserving the biological hotspots and other endemic places with the help of constructing botanical gardens, zoological parks, sanctuaries, etc

Art and Aesthetics

In the form of museums, art galleries, planetariums, exhibitions etc., the study of biology has never failed to prove its importance. Apart from these, there is a vast scope in sectors like biochemistry, biophysics, animal husbandry, etc. New technologies keep developing in every field and require biology as their primary source of knowledge.

Genetic Engineering

It is an advanced study that has gotten its fame recently. Right now, it is the most flourished scope of biology where recombinant DNA technology, somatic hybridisation, cloning, tissue culture etc., is getting advanced every day.

Anthropology

It includes learning about the history of human lives through archaeology to understand the biological and physiological characteristics of humans and also their evolution through different eras.

Scope of biology

BIOLOGY AND ITS RELATION WITH OTHER SCIENCE

Biochemistry

It is the study of chemical reactions, chemical composition, structural orientation, acid and base equilibrium.

Biostat

It is used to study the statistical data of living species, population density, ecological balance.

Sociology in Relation to Biology

It involves the study of human behaviour. It can only be done when one knows about the brain and nervous system in human beings and also about hormonal changes.

Geology in Relation to Biology

Many geological instances include biological factors.

For example, weathering of rocks happens only when there are biological factors like growth of lichens or growth of several microorganisms etc.

Role of Biology in Human Welfare

  • The study of human health and diseases is the most important criterion for humans, wholly dependent on biology. 
  • The strategies that are related to the enhancement of food is the second most important criterion.
  • The study of microorganisms under this subject plays a crucial role in decomposition, biogeochemical cycles, pharmaceutical needs, etc.
  • It is applied in several essential industrial processes like the production of enzymes, antibiotics and several other by-products.  
  • To understand the interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors of the environment and use this knowledge to maintain a balance between both.

Career Opportunities in the Field of Biology

  •  A student studying biology can work in various fields as a doctor, nurse or pharmacist, as a lecturer, as a scientist or a research scholar.
  •  A biologist can work in the food, dairy, leather industries, in biotechnological labs, airports, as a food quality manager and a lot more. 
  • Almost all the fields hire biology graduates as basic knowledge of the subject is one of the primary requirements in any field.

Bioterrorism

From the past two decades , it is stated that the threat of biological warfare is not a myth but a harsh reality of the world . Due to the outbreak , we can recognise the high risk and consequences of bioterrorism.

This editorial provides you the overview of bioterrorism , it’s symptoms , causes , measures and impact on humans in present scenario .

Introduction

A bioterrorism attack is the deliberate release of viruses, bacteria, or other germs to cause illness or death. These germs are often found in nature. But they can sometimes be made more harmful by increasing their ability to cause disease, spread, or resist medical treatment.

Biological agents spread through the air, water, or in food. Some can also spread from person to person. They can be very hard to detect. They don’t cause illness for several hours or days. Scientists worry that anthrax, botulism, Ebola and other hemorrhagic fever viruses, plague, or smallpox could be used as biological agents.

Despite patchy intelligence, France started its own biological weapons programme in the early 1920s. It was headed by Auguste Trillat, an inventive German-educated chemist who envisioned and tested the sustained virulence of airborne pathogens.

The goal of bioterrorism is usually to create fear and/or intimidate governments or societies for the purpose of gaining political, religious, or ideological goals. Bioterrorism may have a different effect on societies than would weapons such as explosives.

Symptoms

The symptoms of exposure to a biological agent might include sore throat, fever, double or blurred vision, rash or skin blisters, exhaustion, difficulty talking, confusion, descending muscle weakness, nausea, abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea, and coughing.

History

Historically, biological weapons have been a threat to humans for many centuries. At those times, very crude methods such as fecal matter, animal carcasses, etc. were used to contaminate water sources, but now the concentrated forms of biological agents such as dried spores and genetically modified organisms are available, which are fatal even in minute quantity.

During the Indo-Pakistan war of 1965, a scrub typhus outbreak in north-eastern India came under suspicion. India’s defense and intelligence outfits were alert to the outbreak of pneumonic plague – well known in biological warfare – in Surat and Bubonic plague in Beed in 1994, which caused several deaths and sizeable economic loss.

Prevention

There are some points that you need to consider during the outbreak :

  • If you become aware of a suspicious substance, quickly get away.
  • Cover your mouth and nose with layers of fabric that can filter the air but still allow breathing. Examples include two to three layers of cotton such as a t-shirt, handkerchief or towel.
  • Depending on the situation, wear a face mask to reduce inhaling or spreading germs.
  • If you have been exposed to a biological agent, remove and bag your clothes and personal items.
  • Follow official instructions for disposal of contaminated items.
  • Wash yourself with soap and water and put on clean clothes.
  • Contact authorities and seek medical assistance. You may be advised to stay away from others or even to quarantine.
  • If your symptoms match those described and you are in the group considered at risk, immediately seek emergency medical attention.
  • Follow the instructions of doctors and other public health officials.
    Avoid crowds.
  • Wash your hands with soap and water frequently.
  • Do not share food or utensils.

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Renewable resources .

Replacing traditional sources of energy completely with renewable energy is going to be a challenging task. However, by adding renewable energy to the grid and gradually increasing its contribution, we can realistically expect a future that is powered completely by green energy.

– Tulsi Tanti

A way to live a new life . Without any destruction , without worrying about the future . Live a life where we can grow together , develop a life with renewable resources.

Introduction

A renewable resource, also known as a flow resource, is a natural resource which will replenish to replace the portion depleted by usage and consumption, either through natural reproduction or other recurring processes in a finite amount of time in a human time scale.

When such recovery rate of resources is unlikely to ever exceed a human time scale, these are called perpetual resources. Renewable resources are a part of Earth’s natural environment and the largest components of its ecosphere. A positive life-cycle assessment is a key indicator of a resource’s sustainability.

Renewable resources are an energy source that cannot be depleted and are able to supply a continuous source of clean energy.

Renewable resources also produce clean energy, meaning less pollution and greenhouse gas emissions, which contribute to climate change.

Examples of renewable resources.

  • Biomass .
  • Biogas.
  • Tidal Energy.
  • Wind Energy.
  • Geothermal Energy.
  • Radiant Energy.
  • Hydro Electricity.
  • Compressed Natural Gas.

Types of renewable resources.

1) Solar energy. Sunlight is one of our planet’s most abundant and freely available energy resources. 2) Wind energy. Wind is a plentiful source of clean energy. 3) Hydro energy.
4) Tidal energy.
5) Geothermal energy. 6) Biomass Energy.

Impact of renewable resources.

Environmental impact

Renewable energy projects have also contributed in improving environmental impacts such as reduction of carbon dioxide gas, awakening community about the climate change. The study observed very small impacts on the people living in a particular area, tourism, cost of energy supply, and educational impacts. Significant impacts were observed in improvement of life standard, social bonds creation, and community development. They also observed that the renewable energy projects are complex to install and are local environmental and condition sensitive. Their forecasting, execution, and planning require more consideration and knowledge as compared to other projects.

Social impact

These resources also provide social benefits like improvement of health, according to choice of consumer, advancement in technologies, and opportunities for the work, but some basic considerations should be taken for the benefit of humans, for example, climate conditions, level of education and standard of living, and region whether urban or rural from agricultural point of view. Social aspects are the basic considerations for the development of any country. The following social benefits can be achieved by renewable energy systems: local employment, better health, job opportunities, and consumer choice.

Advantages of renewable resources.

  • Renewable energy won’t run out.
  • Maintenance requirements are lower.
  • Renewables save money.
  • Renewable energy has numerous health and environmental benefits.
  • Renewables lower reliance on foreign energy sources.
  • Higher upfront cost.
  • Intermittency.
  • Storage capabilities.

Conclusion

Renewable energy is becoming an important resource in all over the world . I do agree that people might exploit the resources for there own benefit . But the government is working on that aspect and trying to provide resources that can help our future households .

There are a lot of different ways of building a prosperous society, and some of them use much less energy than others. And it is possible and more practical to talk about rebuilding systems to use much less energy than it is to think about trying to meet greater demands of energy through clean energy alone.

– Alex Steffen

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The Amazon

The forest is a peculiar organism of unlimited kindness and benevolence that makes no demands for its sustenance and extends generously the products of its life activity; it affords protection to all beings, offering shade even to the axe-man who destroys it.

– Gautama Buddha

Today , let’s feel the presence of fresh air , waterfall , trees , flora and fauna . Being a citizen of a country , which is well known for its resources , different species, mixed economy and different cultures. It is important for us to see the world of flora and fauna.

Well you get to know by the heading , today we are gonna talk about THE AMAZON’S which is well known for its vast species .

Introduction .


The Amazon jungle or Amazonia, is a moist broadleaf tropical rainforest in the Amazon biome that covers most of the Amazon basin of South America. This basin encompasses 7,000,000 km2 (2,700,000 sq mi), of which 5,500,000 km2 (2,100,000 sq mi) are covered by the rainforest. This region includes territory belonging to nine nations and 3,344 formally acknowledged indigenous territories.

The majority of the forest is contained within Brazil, with 60% of the rainforest, followed by Peru with 13%, Colombia with 10%, and with minor amounts in Bolivia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, and Venezuela. Four nations have “Amazonas” as the name of one of their first-level administrative regions, and France uses the name “Guiana Amazonian Park” for its rainforest protected area. The Amazon represents over half of the planet’s remaining rainforests, and comprises the largest and most biodiverse tract of tropical rainforest in the world, with an estimated 390 billion individual trees divided into 16,000 species.

The name Amazon is said to arise from a war Francisco de Orellana fought with the Tapuyas and other tribes. The women of the tribe fought alongside the men, as was their custom. Orellana derived the name Amazonas from the Amazons of Greek mythology, described by Herodotus and Diodorus.

Flora and Fauna.

Wet tropical forests are the most species-rich biome, and tropical forests in the Americas are consistently more species rich than the wet forests in Africa and Asia.

This constitutes the largest collection of living plants and animal species in the world.

The region is home to about 2.5 million insect species, tens of thousands of plants, and some 2,000 birds and mammals. To date, at least 40,000 plant species, 2,200 fishes, 1,294 birds, 427 mammals, 428 amphibians, and 378 reptiles have been scientifically classified in the region.

The biodiversity of plant species is the highest on Earth with one 2001 study finding a quarter square kilometer (62 acres) of Ecuadorian rainforest supports more than 1,100 tree species.

Human impact on Amazon jungle.

The human impact on the Amazon rainforest has been grossly underestimated according to an international team of researchers. … They found that selective logging and surface wildfires can result in an annual loss of 54 billion tonnes of carbon from the Brazilian Amazon, increasing greenhouse gas emissions.

Lead researcher Dr Erika Berenguer from Lancaster University said: “The impacts of fire and logging in tropical forests have always been largely overlooked by both the scientific community and policy makers who are primarily concerned with deforestation. Yet our results show how these disturbances can severely degrade the forest, with huge amounts of carbon being transferred from plant matter straight into the atmosphere.”

The second author, Dr Joice Ferreira from Embrapa in Brazil, said: “Our findings also draw attention to the necessity for Brazil to implement more effective policies for reducing the use of fire in agriculture, as fires can both devastate private property, and escape into surrounding forests causing widespread degradation. Bringing fire and illegal logging under control is key to reaching our national commitment to reducing carbon emissions.”

The forest is not a resource for us, it is life itself. It is the only place for us to live.

-Evaristo Nugkuag Ikanan

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Universal destruction

How could it be possible that when the time gets worse we often ignore the vulnerable?

Nikhil Meshram

We are living in the world , where no one can intrude . A life , where you can’t touch the one you want . A life, where one has to stay away from his own . A life , where no one can go in one’s home . Yes , it’s a life we are living ‘ A life of a LOG’ .

Coronavirus , I believe it’s not a new word in your dictionary . This eleven letter word creating a massive destruction all over the world . I know you are well aware but the real question is , are you following the protocols properly?

Firstly let’s get some knowledge about coronavirus.

The origin .

The recent outbreak began in Wuhan, a city in the Hubei province of China. Reports of the first COVID-19 cases started in December 2019.

Coronaviruses are common in certain species of animals, such as cattle and camels. Although the transmission of coronaviruses from animals to humans is rareTrusted Source, this new strain likely came from bats, though one study suggests pangolins may be the origin.

However, it remains unclear exactly how the virus first spread to humans.

Some reports trace the earliest cases back to a seafood and animal market in Wuhan. It may have been from here that SARS-CoV-2 started to spread to humans.

Coronaviruses are a group of viruses that can cause disease in both animals and humans. The severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) virus strain known as SARS-CoV is an example of a coronavirus. SARS spread rapidly in 2002–2003.

The new strain of coronavirus is called severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The virus causes coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19).


Around 80%Trusted Source of people with COVID-19 recover without specialist treatment. These people may experience mild, flu-like symptoms. However, 1 in 6 peopleTrusted Source may experience severe symptoms, such as trouble breathing.

The new coronavirus has spread rapidly in many parts of the world. On March 11, 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO)Trusted Source declared COVID-19 a pandemic. A pandemic occurs when a disease that people are not immune to spreads across large regions.

It’s okay take a deep breath . Yes, it’s a lot to take in but we all know how china played with the whole world .

The protocols.

  • Wear masks ,
  • Wash hands ,
  • Use sanitizers ,
  • Social distancing , etc,.

Is it important to follow protocols ?

You say NO , I say ‘if you want to die you can easily ignore the protocols ’ . Well I don’t want to die , I have my whole 20s , 30s and so on…… .

According to the survey, people have been moving around freely, meeting different social groups and attending gatherings, going to malls and markets. This indicates that a pandemic fatigue has set in after after a year of restrictions on movement, social distancing and strict mask wearing norms.

Well , if you are saying this is what following protocols is than I am happy to stay home rather than chilling around like a monkey . Like really , a monkey also has a common sense that when to do chilling and when to fight for himself . What we are doing is putting masks in our pocket to showcase the world that I have one . Haha it’s kinda funny .

We long to return to normal, but **normal led to this**. To avert the future pandemics we know are coming, we MUST grapple with all the ways normal failed us. We have to build something better. I hope this piece, in showing what went wrong, helps.

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