The word “Literacy” means an ability to read and write with understanding in any language.A person, who can only read but cannot write is not literate.An illiterate person has to face many practical difficulties in life he cannot read a letter addressed to him by his near and dear ones, he cannot calculate his own income and expenses etc.

The percentage of literate person in India has considerably increased when compared to earlier years.Educated citizens makes intelligent choices and undertake research and development projects.The literacy rate in India is 64.84%.Among all the states in India, Kerala had the highest literacy rate with 94%.

In the aftermath of a rape, victims can face immensely difficult and painful emotions and experiences. Every victim responds to traumatic events in their own way. The effects of the trauma can be for a short while or can last long after the rape.

We all know that rape is a traumatic experience that affects the victim in a physical, psychological, and sociological way. Even though the effects and aftermath of rape differentiate among victims, they are tend to suffer from similar issues found within these three categories. Long term reactions may involve the development of coping mechanisms that will either benefit the victim, such as social support, or inhibit their recovery. Seeking support and professional resources may assist the victim in numerous ways.

Physical Effects:-

• Gynecological Effects  experienced by the victims include; Vaginal or anal bleeding or infection, hypoactive sexual desire disorder, vaginitis or vaginal inflammation, dyspareunia – painful sexual intercourse, vaginismus – a condition affecting a woman’s ability to engage in any form of vaginal penetration, chronic pelvic pain, Urinary tract infections, pregnancy, HIV/AIDS.
• Pregnancy is a potential result of rape. Rape can cause difficulties during and after pregnancy, with potential negative consequences for both the victim and a resulting child. Medical treatment following a rape includes testing for, preventing, and managing pregnancy. A woman who becomes pregnant after a rape may face a decision about whether to raise the child or to make an adoption plan or abort the child.
• Sexually Transmitted Diseases(STDs) can affect both the victim and the rapist. While penetrative rape generally does not involve the use of a condom, in some cases a condom is used. The use of a condom significantly reduces the likelihood of pregnancy and disease transmission, both to the victim and the rapist. Rationales for condom use include: avoiding contracting infections or diseases (particularly HIV), especially in cases of rape of sex workers or in gang rape.

Psychological Effects:-

• In the immediate effects the victim of rape may often have anxiety and fear directly following their attack.  According to a study on the reactions after rape, 96 percent of women said they were scared, shaking, or trembling a few hours after their attack. After more time is passed, the previous symptoms decreased while the levels of depression, exhaustion, and restlessness increased.
• After an attack, rape survivors experience heightened anxiety and fear. According to Dean G. Kilpatrick, a distinguished psychologist, survivors of rape have high levels of anxiety and phobia-related anxiety. This includes and is not limited to the following; Feelings of dread, feeling nervous, feeling tense or uneasy, having panic attacks, having an irrational response to certain stimuli.
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder is an effect which is very common among rape victims. The National Victim Center and the Crime Victim’s Research and Treatment Center released a report that found 31% of women who were raped develop PTSD at some point in their lives following their attack
• Self-blame is among the most common of both short- and long-term effects .There are two main types of self-blame: behavioral self-blame (undeserved blame based on actions) and characterological self-blame (undeserved blame based on character). Survivors who experience behavioral self-blame feel that they should have done something differently, and therefore feel at fault. Survivors who experience characterological self-blame feel there is something inherently wrong with them which has caused them to deserve to be assaulted.
• Suicide or the attempt of suicide is a common effect among rape victims. Survivors of rape are more likely to attempt or commit suicide. This effect remains, even after controlling for sex, age, education, symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder and the presence of psychiatric disorders.

Sociological Effects:-

• Rape is a stigmatizing in cultures with strong customs and taboos regarding sex and sexuality. For example, a rape victim (especially one who was previously a virgin) may be viewed by society as being “impure.” Victims in these cultures may suffer isolation, be disowned by friends and family, be prohibited from marrying, be divorced if already married, or even killed. This phenomenon is known as secondary victimization. While society targets secondary victimization mainly towards women, male victims can also feel shameful, or experience a loss of purity.
• The term victim blaming refers to holding the victim of a crime to be responsible for that crime, either in whole or in part. In the context of rape, it refers to the attitude that certain victim behaviors (such as flirting or wearing sexually provocative clothing) may have encouraged the assault. This can cause the victim to believe the crime was indeed their fault. Rapists are known to use victim blaming as their primary psychological disconnect from their crime and in some cases it has led to their conviction.^]Female rape victims receive more blame when they exhibit behavior which breaks the gender roles of society.

To combat the coronavirus epidemic, officials in a Chinese city bordering Myanmar have deployed facial recognition technology connected to personal health codes.

In the last five years, China’s government has rushed to install more than 200 million Surveillance cameras to “cover all public areas,” making it one of the world’s most surveilled countries.

In China, which was the first country to deploy a QR code system to register test results and monitor interactions, surveillance has also been widely used to combat COVID-19.

However, this is the first time that face recognition has been used to follow a person’s activities and health state as they enter and depart residential neighborhoods, supermarkets, transportation hubs, and other public locations.

On Saturday, officials in Ruili, Yunnan province, informed reporters that “everyone who comes in and out needs to have their (health) code and face scanned to pass.”

According to data released Tuesday, Ruili found 155 cases in the previous week, making it one of the deadliest viral outbreaks in recent months in China.

In critical places, security technologies like face recognition cameras, smart door locks, and road barricades (managed by police or community volunteers) have been installed, according to local authorities.

According to China National Radio, the scanners can also monitor people’s temperatures.

There are no specifics on how long the database will keep records or whether the system, which is being overseen by the city’s pandemic prevention team, would be shut down once the outbreak is under control.

Privacy related concerns

Ruili, a city of about 210,000 people, is a key crossing point from Muse, Myanmar, which has witnessed growing instability since a February 1 coup, generating worries that people would flee the bloodshed by crossing the Chinese border.

According to the Yunnan Provincial Health Commission, Myanmar citizens accounted for over half of the new cases recorded in the last week, but it was unclear how they reached the city.

When it comes to coronavirus clusters, China has taken a zero-risk strategy.

With strict border restrictions, mass testing, lockdowns, and tie-ups with big tech for surveillance, the illness has been mostly contained since it first surfaced in the central city of Wuhan in late 2019.

However, the proliferation of new health tracking applications has prompted worries about privacy.

According to a New York Times investigation in January, a widely used app monitoring travel history and virus testing produced by Chinese e-commerce giant Alibaba exchanged data with the authorities.

During the peak of the epidemic, police officers in major cities donned helmets with facial recognition technology and infrared cameras to monitor pedestrian temperatures.

China’s ubiquitous monitoring network has been criticized by human rights groups, who claim it is being used to stifle dissent and target minority, ethnic groups.

1.The Later Cholas

The Cholas are one among the popular and well-known Tamil morarchs in the history of South India.The elaborate state structure,the extensive irrigation network,the vast number of temples they built, their great contributions to art and architecture and their overseas explots have given them a pre-eminent position in history.

Revival of the Chola Rule

The ancient Chola kingdom resigned supreme with the Kaveri delta forming the core area of its rule and with Uraiyur (present-day Tiruchirapalli) as its capital.It rose to prominence during the regine of Karikala but gradually declined under his successors.In the 9th century vijayalaya, ruling over a small territory lying north of the Kaveri,revived the Chola Dynasty.He conquered Thanjavur and made it his capital.Later Rajendra l and his successors ruled the empire from Gangaikonda Cholapuram,the newly built capital.
Rajaraja |(A.D.(CE) 985–1014) was the most powerful ruler of Chola empire and also grew popular beyond his times.He established Chola authority over large parts of South India.His much–acculaimed naval expeditios led to the expansion of Cholas into the West Coast and Sri Lanka.He built the famous Rajarajeswaram (Brihadeshwara) Temple in Thanjavur.His son and successor, Rajendra Chola |(A.D.(CE)1014 – 1044,matched his father in his ability to expand the empire.The Chola empire remained a powerful force in South India during his region.After his accession,his striking military expedition was to northern India,capturing much territory there. He proclaimed himself the Gangaikondan.The Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple was built to commemorate his victories in North India.The navy of Rajendra Chola enabled him to conquer the kingdom of Srivijaya (southern Sumatra ).Cholas control over the seas facilitated a flourishing overseas trade.

Decline of the Chola Empire

Rajendra Chola’s three successors were not capable rulers.The third successor Veerarajendra’s son Athirajendra was killed in civil unrest.with his death ended the vijayalaya line of Chola rule.

On hearing the death of Athirajendra,the Eastern Chalukya prince Rajendra Chalukya seized the Chola throne and began the rule of Chalukya-Chola dynasty as Kulothunga |. Kulothunga established himself firmly on the Chola throne soon eliminating all the threats to the Chola Empire.He avoided unnessary wars and earned the goodwill of his subjects.But Kulothunga lost the territories in Ceylon.The Pandya territory also began to slip out of Chola control.Kanchipuram was lost to the Telugu Cholas.The year 1279 marks the end of Chola dynasty when king Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan | defeated the last king Rajendra Chola lll and established the rule of the pandyas in present -day Tamil Nadu.

Administration

The central administration was in the hands of king.As the head of the state ,the king enjoyed enormous powers.The king’s orders were written down in palm leaves by his officials or inscribed on the temple walls. The Kingship was hereditary in nature.The ruler selected his eldest sona as the heir apparent.He was known as Yuvaraja.The Yuvarajas wer e appointed as Governers in the provinces mainly for administrative training.The Chola rulers established a well- organised system of administration.The empire,for administrative convenience,was divided into provinces or mandalams.Each mandalam was sub-divided into naadus.Within each naadu,there were many kurrams.The lowest unit was the gramam(village).

Local Governance

Local administration worked through various bodies such as Urar,Sabhaiyar ,Nagarattar and Nattra.With the expansion of agriculture, numerous peasant settlements came up on the countryside.They were Known as Ur.The Urar,who were landholders acted as spokesmen in the Ur.Sabhaiyar in Brahman villages also functioned in carrying out administrative, financial and judical functions.Nagarattar administrated the settlement of traders.However,skilled artisans like mansons,blackmiths ,goldsmiths,weavers and potters also lived in Nagaram.Nattur functioned as an assembly of Nadu and decided all the disputes and issues pertaining to Nadu.The assembles in Ur,Sabha,Nagaram and Nadu worked through various committees.The committees took care of irrigation,roads, temples,gardens, collection of revenue and conduct of religious festivals.

Uttiramerur Inscriptions

Uttiramerur presently in Kanchipuram district was a Brahmadeya village (land grants given to Brahmins).There is a detailed description of how members were elected to the committees of the village sabha in the inscriptions found there.One member was to be elected from each ward.There were 30 wards in total.The eligibility to contest was to men in the age group of 35-70, well-versed in Vedic texts and scriptures, and also owned land and house.The process of election was as follows:The names of qualified candidates from each ward were written on the palm-leaf slips and put into a pot.The eldest of the assembly would engage a boy to pull out one slip and declare in this way.

Revenue

The revenue of the Chola state came mainly from the land.The land tax was known as Kanikadan.The Chola rulers carried out an elaborate survey of land in order to fix the government’s share of the land revenue.One – third of produce was collected as land tax.It was collected mostly in Kind.In addition to land tax,there were taxes on profession and tolls on trade.

Social structure Based on Land Relations

The Chola rulers gifted tax-free lands to royal officials, Brahmins, temples and Jain institutions was called pallichchandam.There were also of vellanvagai land and the holders of this land were called Vellalars.Ulu-kudi,a sub-section of Vellalar, could not own land but had to cultivate Brahmadeya and Vellanvagai lands.The holders of vellanvagai land retained melvaram.The ulu-kudi got kil-varam.Adimai and panicey-makkal occupied the lowest rung of society.In the intermediate section came the armed men and traders.

Irrigation

Cholas gave importance to irrigation.The 16 – mile long embankment built by Rajendra Chola in Gangaikonda Cholapuram is an illustrious example.Vati-vaykkal,a criss-cross channel,is a traditional type of harnessing rain water in the cauvery delta.Vati is a drainage channel and a vaykkal is the supply channel.The commonly owned village channel was called ur-vaykkal.

Religion

Chola rulers were ardent saivites.Hymns,in praise of the deeds of Lord siva,were composed by the Saiva saints,the Nayanmars.

Temples

The Chola period witnessed an extensive construction of temples.The temples in Thanjavur, Gangaikonda Cholapuram and Darasuram are the repository of architecture, sculpture, paintings and iconography of the Chola art . Temples during the Chola period were not merely places of worship.They were the largest landholders.Temples promoted education ,and devotional forms of art such as dance,music and drama.The staff of the temples included temple officials, dancing girls, musicians,singers ,players of musical instruments and the priests.

Trade

There was a flourishing trade during the Chola period.Trade was carried out by two guild-like groups: anju-vannattar and mani-gramattar.Anju-vannattar comprised west Asians,Arabs,Jews, Christians and Muslims.They were maritime traders and settled on the port towns all along the west Coast.It is said that mangi-gramattur were the traders engaged in inland trade.In due course,both groups merged under the banner of ai-nutruvar and disai-ayirattu -ai-nutruvar functioning through the head guild in Ayyavole, Karnataka.This ai-nutruvar guild operated the maritime trade covering South-east Asian countries.

⭐ Ramakrishna was a simple priest of Dakshineswar near Kolkata.
⭐He emphasised the spiritual Union with God through ecstatic practices such as singing bhajans.
⭐He declared that the manifestations of the divine mother was infinite.

Ramakrishna Mission:

🔅 Ramakrishna’s primary achievement was his ability to attract educated youth who were dissatisfied with the rational orientation of religious reform organizations such as the Brahmin Samaj.
🔅After his death in 1886, his discipline undertook the task of making his life and teaching known in India and abroad.
🔅Vivekananda established the Ramakrishna Mission which was actively involved in social cause such as education, health care and relief in times of calamities.

Swami Vivekananda:

🔅Swami Vivekananda, was the prime follower of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa.
🔅Dissatisfied with conventional philosophical positions and practices, he advocated the practical Vedanta of service to humanity.
🔅He attacked the tendency to defend every institution simply because it was connected with religion.
🔅He emphasized a cultural nationalism and made a call to Indian youth to regenerate Hindu Society.

🔅His ideas bred a sense of self – confidence among Indians who felt like inferior in relation to the materialist achievement of the West.
🔅He was condemned by orthodox Hindus for suggesting that the lower castes should be allowed to engage in the Hindu ritual from which they were traditionally excluded.
🔅Vivekananda’s activist ideology rekindled the desire for political change among many Western – education young Bengalis.
🔅Many of the youths who were involved in the militant nationalist struggle during the Swadeshi movement following the Partition of Bengal were inspired by Vivekananda.